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程序
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内存条
00000000
num（变量）
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p（变量）
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整合","titles":["第九章：附录","9.3 内存泄露检测"]},"95":{"title":"9.4 性能分析","titles":["第九章：附录"]},"96":{"title":"9.4.1 概述","titles":["第九章：附录","9.4 性能分析"]},"97":{"title":"9.4.2 安装","titles":["第九章：附录","9.4 性能分析"]},"98":{"title":"9.4.2.1 AlmaLinux9","titles":["第九章：附录","9.4 性能分析","9.4.2 安装"]},"99":{"title":"9.4.2.2 Ubuntu 22.04","titles":["第九章：附录","9.4 性能分析","9.4.2 安装"]},"100":{"title":"9.4.3 整合","titles":["第九章：附录","9.4 性能分析"]},"101":{"title":"9.5 Win 中文乱码问题","titles":["第九章：附录"]},"102":{"title":"9.6 CLion 中自动导入头文件","titles":["第九章：附录"]},"103":{"title":"第一章：变量（⭐）","titles":[]},"104":{"title":"1.1 程序中变化的数据","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）"]},"105":{"title":"1.2 变量","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）"]},"106":{"title":"1.3 变量的声明和使用","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）"]},"107":{"title":"1.4 从计算机底层看变量","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）"]},"108":{"title":"1.4.1 内存条的内部结构","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.4 从计算机底层看变量"]},"109":{"title":"1.4.2 变量的作用","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.4 从计算机底层看变量"]},"110":{"title":"1.6 变量的重要操作","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）"]},"111":{"title":"1.6.1 变量的输出","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.6 变量的重要操作"]},"112":{"title":"1.6.2 计算变量的大小","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.6 变量的重要操作"]},"113":{"title":"1.6.3 获取变量的地址","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.6 变量的重要操作"]},"114":{"title":"1.6.4 变量的输入","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.6 变量的重要操作"]},"115":{"title":"1.7 标识符","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）"]},"116":{"title":"1.7.1 概述","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.7 标识符"]},"117":{"title":"1.7.2 标识符的命名规范","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.7 标识符"]},"118":{"title":"1.7.3 关键字","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.7 标识符"]},"119":{"title":"第二章：常量（⭐）","titles":[]},"120":{"title":"2.1 概述","titles":["第二章：常量（⭐）"]},"121":{"title":"2.2 常量的分类","titles":["第二章：常量（⭐）"]},"122":{"title":"2.3 使用 #define 定义常量","titles":["第二章：常量（⭐）"]},"123":{"title":"2.4 const 关键字","titles":["第二章：常量（⭐）"]},"124":{"title":"2.5 枚举常量","titles":["第二章：常量（⭐）"]},"125":{"title":"2.6 #defind 定义常量 VS const 定义常量","titles":["第二章：常量（⭐）"]},"126":{"title":"第三章：二进制","titles":[]},"127":{"title":"3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：二进制"]},"128":{"title":"3.2 进制","titles":["第三章：二进制"]},"129":{"title":"3.2.1 常见的进制","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.2 进制"]},"130":{"title":"3.2.2 C 语言中如何表示不同进制的整数？","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.2 进制"]},"131":{"title":"3.2.3 输出格式","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.2 进制"]},"132":{"title":"3.3 进制的运算规则","titles":["第三章：二进制"]},"133":{"title":"3.4 进制的转换","titles":["第三章：二进制"]},"134":{"title":"3.4.1 概述","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.4 进制的转换"]},"135":{"title":"3.4.2 二进制和十进制的转换","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.4 进制的转换"]},"136":{"title":"3.4.2.1 二进制转换为十进制","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.4 进制的转换","3.4.2 二进制和十进制的转换"]},"137":{"title":"3.4.2.2 十进制转换二进制","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.4 进制的转换","3.4.2 二进制和十进制的转换"]},"138":{"title":"3.4.3 二进制转八进制","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.4 进制的转换"]},"139":{"title":"3.4.4 二进制转十六进制","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.4 进制的转换"]},"140":{"title":"3.5 原码、反码和补码","titles":["第三章：二进制"]},"141":{"title":"3.5.1 概述","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.5 原码、反码和补码"]},"142":{"title":"3.5.2 原码","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.5 原码、反码和补码"]},"143":{"title":"3.5.3 反码","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.5 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浮点类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"160":{"title":"1.3.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"161":{"title":"1.3.2 格式占位符","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"162":{"title":"1.3.3 字面量后缀","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"163":{"title":"1.3.4 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"164":{"title":"1.3.5 类型的取值范围","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"165":{"title":"1.4 字符类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"166":{"title":"1.4.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"167":{"title":"1.4.2 格式占位符","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"168":{"title":"1.4.3 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"169":{"title":"1.4.4 类型的取值范围","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"170":{"title":"1.4.5 字符类型的本质","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"171":{"title":"1.5 布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"172":{"title":"1.5.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"173":{"title":"1.5.2 早期的布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"174":{"title":"1.5.3 宏定义的布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"175":{"title":"1.5.4 C99 标准中的布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"176":{"title":"1.5.5 C99 标准头文件中的布尔类型（推荐）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"177":{"title":"1.6 数据类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"178":{"title":"1.6.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换"]},"179":{"title":"1.6.2 自动类型转换（隐式转换）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换"]},"180":{"title":"1.6.2.1 运算过程中的自动类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换","1.6.2 自动类型转换（隐式转换）"]},"181":{"title":"1.6.2.2 赋值时的自动类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换","1.6.2 自动类型转换（隐式转换）"]},"182":{"title":"1.6.3 强制类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换"]},"183":{"title":"第二章：运算符（⭐）","titles":[]},"184":{"title":"2.1 概述","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"185":{"title":"2.2 算术运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"186":{"title":"2.3 关系运算符（比较运算符）","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"187":{"title":"2.4 逻辑运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"188":{"title":"2.5 赋值运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"189":{"title":"2.6 位运算符（了解）","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"190":{"title":"2.6.1 概述","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"191":{"title":"2.6.2 输出二进制位","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"192":{"title":"2.6.3 按位与","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"193":{"title":"2.6.4 按位或","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"194":{"title":"2.6.5 按位异或","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"195":{"title":"2.6.6 按位取反","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"196":{"title":"2.6.7 二进制左移","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"197":{"title":"2.6.8 二进制右移","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"198":{"title":"2.7 三元运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"199":{"title":"2.8 运算符优先级","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"200":{"title":"第三章：附录","titles":[]},"201":{"title":"3.1 字符集和字符集编码","titles":["第三章：附录"]},"202":{"title":"3.3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：附录","3.1 字符集和字符集编码"]},"203":{"title":"3.3.2 ASCII 编码","titles":["第三章：附录","3.1 字符集和字符集编码"]},"204":{"title":"3.3.3 Unicode 编码","titles":["第三章：附录","3.1 字符集和字符集编码"]},"205":{"title":"第一章：概述","titles":[]},"206":{"title":"第二章：顺序结构","titles":[]},"207":{"title":"2.1 概述","titles":["第二章：顺序结构"]},"208":{"title":"2.2 应用示例","titles":["第二章：顺序结构"]},"209":{"title":"第三章：分支结构（⭐）","titles":[]},"210":{"title":"3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"211":{"title":"3.2 单分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"212":{"title":"3.2.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"213":{"title":"3.2.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"214":{"title":"3.2.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"215":{"title":"3.3 双分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"216":{"title":"3.3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"217":{"title":"3.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"218":{"title":"3.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"219":{"title":"3.3.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"220":{"title":"3.4 多重分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"221":{"title":"3.4.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"222":{"title":"3.4.1 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"223":{"title":"3.4.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"224":{"title":"3.5 多重分支结构 switch","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"225":{"title":"3.5.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"226":{"title":"3.5.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"227":{"title":"3.5.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"228":{"title":"3.5.4 switch 和 if else if 的比较","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"229":{"title":"3.6 嵌套分支","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"230":{"title":"3.6.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.6 嵌套分支"]},"231":{"title":"3.6.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.6 嵌套分支"]},"232":{"title":"第四章：随机数","titles":[]},"233":{"title":"4.1 概述","titles":["第四章：随机数"]},"234":{"title":"4.2 C 语言中随机数的产生","titles":["第四章：随机数"]},"235":{"title":"第五章：循环结构（⭐）","titles":[]},"236":{"title":"5.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"237":{"title":"5.2 for 循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"238":{"title":"5.2.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"239":{"title":"5.2.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"240":{"title":"5.2.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"241":{"title":"5.2.4 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"242":{"title":"5.2.5 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"243":{"title":"5.2.6 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"244":{"title":"5.3 while 循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"245":{"title":"5.3.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"246":{"title":"5.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"247":{"title":"5.3.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"248":{"title":"5.3.4 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"249":{"title":"5.3.5 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"250":{"title":"5.3.6 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"251":{"title":"5.4 do-while 循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"252":{"title":"5.4.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"253":{"title":"5.4.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"254":{"title":"5.4.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"255":{"title":"5.5 嵌套循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"256":{"title":"5.5.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"257":{"title":"5.5.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"258":{"title":"5.5.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"259":{"title":"5.5.4 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"260":{"title":"5.5.5 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"261":{"title":"5.6 无限循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"262":{"title":"5.7 跳转控制语句","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"263":{"title":"5.7.1 break","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"264":{"title":"5.7.2 continue","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"265":{"title":"5.7.3 return","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"266":{"title":"第一章：数组的概念","titles":[]},"267":{"title":"1.1 为什么需要数组？","titles":["第一章：数组的概念"]},"268":{"title":"1.1.1 需求分析 1","titles":["第一章：数组的概念","1.1 为什么需要数组？"]},"269":{"title":"1.1.2 需求分析 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一维数组的内存分析"]},"286":{"title":"2.7 数组应用案例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"287":{"title":"2.7.1 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"288":{"title":"2.7.2 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"289":{"title":"2.7.3 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"290":{"title":"2.7.4 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"291":{"title":"2.7.5 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"292":{"title":"2.7.6 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"293":{"title":"2.7.7 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"294":{"title":"第三章：多维数组（⭐）","titles":[]},"295":{"title":"3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"296":{"title":"3.1.1 引入","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.1 概述"]},"297":{"title":"3.1.2 多维数组","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.1 概述"]},"298":{"title":"3.2 二维数组的定义","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"299":{"title":"3.2.1 动态初始化","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.2 二维数组的定义"]},"300":{"title":"3.2.2 静态初始化 1","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.2 二维数组的定义"]},"301":{"title":"3.2.3 静态初始化 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整合","titles":["第九章：附录","9.3 内存泄露检测"]},"95":{"title":"9.4 性能分析","titles":["第九章：附录"]},"96":{"title":"9.4.1 概述","titles":["第九章：附录","9.4 性能分析"]},"97":{"title":"9.4.2 安装","titles":["第九章：附录","9.4 性能分析"]},"98":{"title":"9.4.2.1 AlmaLinux9","titles":["第九章：附录","9.4 性能分析","9.4.2 安装"]},"99":{"title":"9.4.2.2 Ubuntu 22.04","titles":["第九章：附录","9.4 性能分析","9.4.2 安装"]},"100":{"title":"9.4.3 整合","titles":["第九章：附录","9.4 性能分析"]},"101":{"title":"9.5 Win 中文乱码问题","titles":["第九章：附录"]},"102":{"title":"9.6 CLion 中自动导入头文件","titles":["第九章：附录"]},"103":{"title":"第一章：变量（⭐）","titles":[]},"104":{"title":"1.1 程序中变化的数据","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）"]},"105":{"title":"1.2 变量","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）"]},"106":{"title":"1.3 变量的声明和使用","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）"]},"107":{"title":"1.4 从计算机底层看变量","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）"]},"108":{"title":"1.4.1 内存条的内部结构","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.4 从计算机底层看变量"]},"109":{"title":"1.4.2 变量的作用","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.4 从计算机底层看变量"]},"110":{"title":"1.6 变量的重要操作","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）"]},"111":{"title":"1.6.1 变量的输出","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.6 变量的重要操作"]},"112":{"title":"1.6.2 计算变量的大小","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.6 变量的重要操作"]},"113":{"title":"1.6.3 获取变量的地址","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.6 变量的重要操作"]},"114":{"title":"1.6.4 变量的输入","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.6 变量的重要操作"]},"115":{"title":"1.7 标识符","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）"]},"116":{"title":"1.7.1 概述","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.7 标识符"]},"117":{"title":"1.7.2 标识符的命名规范","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.7 标识符"]},"118":{"title":"1.7.3 关键字","titles":["第一章：变量（⭐）","1.7 标识符"]},"119":{"title":"第二章：常量（⭐）","titles":[]},"120":{"title":"2.1 概述","titles":["第二章：常量（⭐）"]},"121":{"title":"2.2 常量的分类","titles":["第二章：常量（⭐）"]},"122":{"title":"2.3 使用 #define 定义常量","titles":["第二章：常量（⭐）"]},"123":{"title":"2.4 const 关键字","titles":["第二章：常量（⭐）"]},"124":{"title":"2.5 枚举常量","titles":["第二章：常量（⭐）"]},"125":{"title":"2.6 #defind 定义常量 VS const 定义常量","titles":["第二章：常量（⭐）"]},"126":{"title":"第三章：二进制","titles":[]},"127":{"title":"3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：二进制"]},"128":{"title":"3.2 进制","titles":["第三章：二进制"]},"129":{"title":"3.2.1 常见的进制","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.2 进制"]},"130":{"title":"3.2.2 C 语言中如何表示不同进制的整数？","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.2 进制"]},"131":{"title":"3.2.3 输出格式","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.2 进制"]},"132":{"title":"3.3 进制的运算规则","titles":["第三章：二进制"]},"133":{"title":"3.4 进制的转换","titles":["第三章：二进制"]},"134":{"title":"3.4.1 概述","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.4 进制的转换"]},"135":{"title":"3.4.2 二进制和十进制的转换","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.4 进制的转换"]},"136":{"title":"3.4.2.1 二进制转换为十进制","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.4 进制的转换","3.4.2 二进制和十进制的转换"]},"137":{"title":"3.4.2.2 十进制转换二进制","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.4 进制的转换","3.4.2 二进制和十进制的转换"]},"138":{"title":"3.4.3 二进制转八进制","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.4 进制的转换"]},"139":{"title":"3.4.4 二进制转十六进制","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.4 进制的转换"]},"140":{"title":"3.5 原码、反码和补码","titles":["第三章：二进制"]},"141":{"title":"3.5.1 概述","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.5 原码、反码和补码"]},"142":{"title":"3.5.2 原码","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.5 原码、反码和补码"]},"143":{"title":"3.5.3 反码","titles":["第三章：二进制","3.5 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浮点类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"160":{"title":"1.3.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"161":{"title":"1.3.2 格式占位符","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"162":{"title":"1.3.3 字面量后缀","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"163":{"title":"1.3.4 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"164":{"title":"1.3.5 类型的取值范围","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"165":{"title":"1.4 字符类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"166":{"title":"1.4.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"167":{"title":"1.4.2 格式占位符","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"168":{"title":"1.4.3 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"169":{"title":"1.4.4 类型的取值范围","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"170":{"title":"1.4.5 字符类型的本质","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"171":{"title":"1.5 布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"172":{"title":"1.5.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"173":{"title":"1.5.2 早期的布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"174":{"title":"1.5.3 宏定义的布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"175":{"title":"1.5.4 C99 标准中的布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"176":{"title":"1.5.5 C99 标准头文件中的布尔类型（推荐）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"177":{"title":"1.6 数据类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"178":{"title":"1.6.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换"]},"179":{"title":"1.6.2 自动类型转换（隐式转换）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换"]},"180":{"title":"1.6.2.1 运算过程中的自动类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换","1.6.2 自动类型转换（隐式转换）"]},"181":{"title":"1.6.2.2 赋值时的自动类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换","1.6.2 自动类型转换（隐式转换）"]},"182":{"title":"1.6.3 强制类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换"]},"183":{"title":"第二章：运算符（⭐）","titles":[]},"184":{"title":"2.1 概述","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"185":{"title":"2.2 算术运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"186":{"title":"2.3 关系运算符（比较运算符）","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"187":{"title":"2.4 逻辑运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"188":{"title":"2.5 赋值运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"189":{"title":"2.6 位运算符（了解）","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"190":{"title":"2.6.1 概述","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"191":{"title":"2.6.2 输出二进制位","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"192":{"title":"2.6.3 按位与","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"193":{"title":"2.6.4 按位或","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"194":{"title":"2.6.5 按位异或","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"195":{"title":"2.6.6 按位取反","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"196":{"title":"2.6.7 二进制左移","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"197":{"title":"2.6.8 二进制右移","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"198":{"title":"2.7 三元运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"199":{"title":"2.8 运算符优先级","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"200":{"title":"第三章：附录","titles":[]},"201":{"title":"3.1 字符集和字符集编码","titles":["第三章：附录"]},"202":{"title":"3.3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：附录","3.1 字符集和字符集编码"]},"203":{"title":"3.3.2 ASCII 编码","titles":["第三章：附录","3.1 字符集和字符集编码"]},"204":{"title":"3.3.3 Unicode 编码","titles":["第三章：附录","3.1 字符集和字符集编码"]},"205":{"title":"第一章：概述","titles":[]},"206":{"title":"第二章：顺序结构","titles":[]},"207":{"title":"2.1 概述","titles":["第二章：顺序结构"]},"208":{"title":"2.2 应用示例","titles":["第二章：顺序结构"]},"209":{"title":"第三章：分支结构（⭐）","titles":[]},"210":{"title":"3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"211":{"title":"3.2 单分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"212":{"title":"3.2.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"213":{"title":"3.2.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"214":{"title":"3.2.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"215":{"title":"3.3 双分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"216":{"title":"3.3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"217":{"title":"3.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"218":{"title":"3.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"219":{"title":"3.3.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"220":{"title":"3.4 多重分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"221":{"title":"3.4.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"222":{"title":"3.4.1 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"223":{"title":"3.4.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"224":{"title":"3.5 多重分支结构 switch","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"225":{"title":"3.5.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"226":{"title":"3.5.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"227":{"title":"3.5.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"228":{"title":"3.5.4 switch 和 if else if 的比较","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"229":{"title":"3.6 嵌套分支","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"230":{"title":"3.6.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.6 嵌套分支"]},"231":{"title":"3.6.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.6 嵌套分支"]},"232":{"title":"第四章：随机数","titles":[]},"233":{"title":"4.1 概述","titles":["第四章：随机数"]},"234":{"title":"4.2 C 语言中随机数的产生","titles":["第四章：随机数"]},"235":{"title":"第五章：循环结构（⭐）","titles":[]},"236":{"title":"5.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"237":{"title":"5.2 for 循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"238":{"title":"5.2.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"239":{"title":"5.2.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"240":{"title":"5.2.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"241":{"title":"5.2.4 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"242":{"title":"5.2.5 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"243":{"title":"5.2.6 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"244":{"title":"5.3 while 循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"245":{"title":"5.3.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"246":{"title":"5.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"247":{"title":"5.3.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"248":{"title":"5.3.4 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"249":{"title":"5.3.5 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"250":{"title":"5.3.6 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"251":{"title":"5.4 do-while 循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"252":{"title":"5.4.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"253":{"title":"5.4.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"254":{"title":"5.4.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"255":{"title":"5.5 嵌套循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"256":{"title":"5.5.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"257":{"title":"5.5.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"258":{"title":"5.5.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"259":{"title":"5.5.4 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"260":{"title":"5.5.5 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"261":{"title":"5.6 无限循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"262":{"title":"5.7 跳转控制语句","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"263":{"title":"5.7.1 break","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"264":{"title":"5.7.2 continue","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"265":{"title":"5.7.3 return","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"266":{"title":"第一章：数组的概念","titles":[]},"267":{"title":"1.1 为什么需要数组？","titles":["第一章：数组的概念"]},"268":{"title":"1.1.1 需求分析 1","titles":["第一章：数组的概念","1.1 为什么需要数组？"]},"269":{"title":"1.1.2 需求分析 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一维数组的内存分析"]},"286":{"title":"2.7 数组应用案例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"287":{"title":"2.7.1 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"288":{"title":"2.7.2 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"289":{"title":"2.7.3 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"290":{"title":"2.7.4 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"291":{"title":"2.7.5 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"292":{"title":"2.7.6 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"293":{"title":"2.7.7 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"294":{"title":"第三章：多维数组（⭐）","titles":[]},"295":{"title":"3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"296":{"title":"3.1.1 引入","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.1 概述"]},"297":{"title":"3.1.2 多维数组","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.1 概述"]},"298":{"title":"3.2 二维数组的定义","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"299":{"title":"3.2.1 动态初始化","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.2 二维数组的定义"]},"300":{"title":"3.2.2 静态初始化 1","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.2 二维数组的定义"]},"301":{"title":"3.2.3 静态初始化 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第一章：数组的概念 ​

1.1 为什么需要数组？ ​

1.1.1 需求分析 1 ​

  • 需要统计某公司 50 个员工的工资情况，例如：计算平均工资、最高工资等。如果使用之前的知识，我们需要声明 50 个变量来分别记录每位员工的工资，即：
c
#include <stdio.h>
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第一章：数组的概念 ​
1.1 为什么需要数组？ ​
1.1.1 需求分析 1 ​
  • 需要统计某公司 50 个员工的工资情况，例如：计算平均工资、最高工资等。如果使用之前的知识，我们需要声明 50 个变量来分别记录每位员工的工资，即：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main(){
     
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diff --git a/assets/notes_01_c-basic_06_xdx_index.md.BBHptzz_.js b/assets/notes_01_c-basic_06_xdx_index.md.BBHptzz_.js
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  • 指针是 C 语言中最重要的概念之一，也是最难以理解的概念之一。
  • 指针是 C 语言的精髓，要想掌握 C 语言就需要深入地了解指针。
第一章：颇具争议的指针 ​
1.1 概述 ​
  • 目前而言，操作系统几乎都是通过 C 语言来编写和维护的；而 C 语言提供了指针的用法，其能直接操作内存地址，是个非常强大和灵活的工具；但是，需要开发者小心谨慎的使用，以确保程序的稳定性和安全性。
NOTE
之所以指针在 C 语言中颇具争议，是因为一方面其功能强大，直接操作内存地址；另一方面，又很危险，不正确的使用指针的方式，非常容易导致程序崩溃。
  • 如果没有能很好的使用指针，就会带来一系列的问题，如：
    • ① 空指针引用（Null Pointer Dereference）：当一个指针没有正确初始化或者被赋予了空（NULL）值时，如果程序尝试访问该指针所指向的内存，会导致运行时错误，甚至导致程序崩溃。
    • ② 野指针（Dangling Pointers）：指针指向的内存地址曾经分配给某个变量或对象，但后来该变量或对象被释放或者移动，导致指针仍指向已经无效的内存位置。对野指针进行操作可能会导致未定义的行为或程序崩溃。
    • ③ 指针算术错误：在进行指针运算时，如果没有正确管理指针的偏移量或者超出了数组的边界，可能会导致指针指向错误的内存位置，从而影响程序的正确性和安全性。
    • ④ 内存泄漏：如果动态分配的内存通过指针分配，但在不再需要时没有正确释放，会导致内存泄漏，长时间运行的程序可能会耗尽系统资源。
  • 为了减少指针带来的风险，开发人员可以采取以下的措施：
    • ① 良好的编程实践：确保指针的初始化和使用是安全的，避免空指针引用和野指针问题。
    • ② 边界检查：在进行指针运算时，始终确保不会超出数组或内存分配的边界。
    • ③ 使用指针和引用的适当性：在可能的情况下，可以考虑使用更安全的语言特性，如：引用（在 C++ 等编程语言中）或者更高级别的数据结构来代替裸指针，从而减少指针使用时的潜在风险。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 既然指针很危险，那么通过一系列的手段将指针包装或屏蔽，以达到程序安全的目的（这是现代化的高级编程语言解决的思路，如：Java、Go、Rust 等）。
  • ② 之所以，指针还需要学习，是因为在嵌入式等领域，其机器的资源（CPU、内存等）非常有限；而现代化的高级编程语言虽然安全，但是需要的系统资源也庞大。
  • ③ 我们知道，编译型的程序不管编译过程如何复杂，至少需要两步：编译和运行。通常，我们也将这两步称为编译期和运行期。C 语言中的指针之所以危险就在于程序要在运行的时候才会发现问题（后知后觉）；而现代化的高级编程语言中的编译器在程序编译的时候就会发现问题（提前发现问题）。
  • ④ C 语言的编译器之所以这么设计的原因，就在于当时的内存和 CPU 是非常有限（PDP-7 早期小型计算机，CPU：18 bit 的电子管逻辑，内存：4kb ）和昂贵（72,000 $），如果加入安全限制的功能，会远远超过整个系统的资源。
1.2 现代化高级编程语言是如何解决指针危险的？ ​
  • C++采用了如下的策略和机制，来解决指针危险操作的：
    • ① 智能指针： C++ 引入了智能指针（如std::shared_ptr、std::unique_ptr），这些指针提供了自动资源管理和所有权的语义。std::unique_ptr确保只有一个指针可以访问给定的资源，从而避免了传统指针的悬空引用和内存泄漏问题。std::shared_ptr允许多个指针共享一个资源，并在所有引用释放后自动释放。
    • ② 引用： C++ 中的引用（如：&符号）提供了更安全的间接访问方法，与指针相比，引用不能重新绑定到不同的对象，从而减少了意外的指针错误。
  • Go采用了如下的策略和机制，来解决指针危险操作的：
    • ① 内存管理和垃圾回收： Go 语言通过自动垃圾回收器管理内存，减少了手动内存管理所带来的指针操作错误。Go 的垃圾回收器定期扫描并释放不再使用的内存，避免了内存泄漏和悬空指针问题。
    • ② 指针的安全性： Go 语言的指针是受限的，不支持指针运算，从而减少了指针操作可能带来的风险。
  • Rust采用了如下的策略和机制，来解决指针危险操作的：
    • ① 所有权和借用： Rust 引入了所有权和借用的概念，编译器在编译时静态分析所有权转移和引用的生命周期。这种机制避免了数据竞争和空指针解引用等运行时错误，使得在编译时就能够保证内存安全。
    • ② 生命周期： Rust 的生命周期系统确保引用的有效性和安全性，防止了悬空引用和指针乱用。
  • Java采用了如下的策略和机制，来解决指针危险操作的：
    • ① 引用类型和自动内存管理： Java 中所有的对象引用都是通过引用来访问的，而不是直接的指针。Java 的自动垃圾回收器负责管理内存，从而避免了手动内存管理可能导致的指针错误，如：内存泄漏和悬空指针。
    • ② 强类型系统和异常处理： Java 的强类型系统和异常处理机制减少了指针操作带来的风险，如：空指针解引用异常（NullPointerException）。编译器在编译时能够捕获许多潜在的类型错误，进一步增强了程序的安全性和可靠性。
IMPORTANT
总而言之，各种编程语言通过引入不同的策略和机制，如：智能指针、垃圾回收器、所有权和借用，以及强类型系统，有效地减少了指针操作所带来的各种安全性和可靠性问题，提升了程序的稳定性和开发效率。
第二章：回顾知识 ​
2.1 变量 ​
  • 变量就是保存程序运行过程中临时产生的值，其语法如下：
c
数据类型 变量名 = 值 ;
IMPORTANT
变量名（标识符）需要符合命名规则和命名规范！！！
  • 强制规范： 
    • ① 只能由小写或大写英文字母，0-9 或 _ 组成。
    • ② 不能以数字开头。
    • ③ 不可以是关键字。
    • ④ 标识符具有长度限制，不同编译器和平台会有所不同，一般限制在 63 个字符内。
    • ⑤ 严格区分大小写字母，如：Hello、hello 是不同的标识符。
  • 建议规范： 
    • ① 为了提高阅读性，使用有意义的单词，见名知意，如：sum，name，max，year 等。
    • ② 使用下划线连接多个单词组成的标识符，如：max_classes_per_student 等。
    • ③ 多个单词组成的标识符，除了使用下划线连接，也可以使用小驼峰命名法，除第一个单词外，后续单词的首字母大写，如： studentId、student_name 等。
    • ④ 不要出现仅靠大小写区分不同的标识符，如：name、Name 容易混淆。
    • ⑤ 系统内部使用了一些下划线开头的标识符，如：C99 标准添加的类型 _Bool，为防止冲突，建议开发者尽量避免使用下划线开头的标识符。
  • 变量名的作用，如下所示： 
    • ① 当我们编写代码的时候，使用变量名来关联某块内存的地址。
    • ② 当 CPU 执行的时候，会将变量名替换为具体的地址，再进行具体的操作。
2.2 普通变量和指针变量的区别 ​
  • 根据变量中存储的值的不同，我们可以将变量分为两类： 
    • 普通变量：变量所对应的内存中存储的是普通值。
    • 指针变量：变量所对应的内存中存储的是另一个变量的地址。
  • 如下图所示：
img
  • 普通变量和指针变量的相同点，如下所示： 
    • ① 普通变量有内存空间，指针变量也有内存空间。
    • ② 普通变量有内存地址，指针变量也有内存地址。
    • ③ 普通变量所对应的内存空间中有值，指针变量所对应的内存空间中也有值。
  • 普通变量和指针变量的不同点： 
    • ① 普通变量所对应的内存空间存储的是普通的值，如：整数、小数、字符等；指针变量所对应的内存空间存储的是另外一个变量的地址。
    • ② 普通变量有普通变量的运算方式，而指针变量有指针变量的运算方式（后续讲解）。
2.3 运算符 ​
2.3.1 概述 ​
  • 运算符是一种特殊的符号，用于数据的运算、赋值和比较等。
  • 表达式指的是一组运算数、运算符的组合，表达式一定具有值，一个变量或一个常量可以是表达式，变量、常量和运算符也可以组成表达式，如：
img
  • 操作数指的是参与运算的值或者对象，如：
  • 根据操作数的个数，可以将运算符分为： 
    • 一元运算符（一目运算符）。
    • 二元运算符（二目运算符）。
    • 三元运算符（三目运算符）。
  • 根据功能，可以将运算符分为： 
    • 算术运算符。
    • 关系运算符（比较运算符）。
    • 逻辑运算符。
    • 赋值运算符。
    • 逻辑运算符。
    • 位运算符。
    • 三元运算符。
NOTE
掌握一个运算符，需要关注以下几个方面：
  • ① 运算符的含义。
  • ② 运算符操作数的个数。
  • ③ 运算符所组成的表达式。
  • ④ 运算符有无副作用，即：运算后是否会修改操作数的值。
IMPORTANT
普通变量支持上述的所有运算符；而指针变量并非支持上述的所有运算符，且支持运算符的含义和普通变量相差较大！！！
2.3.2 运算符的优先级 ​
  • C 语言中运算符的优先级，如下所示：
优先级运算符名称或含义结合方向
1[]数组下标➡️（从左到右）
()圆括号
.成员选择（对象）
->成员选择（指针）
2-负号运算符⬅️（从右到左）
（类型）强制类型转换
++自增运算符
--自减运算符
*取值运算符
&取地址运算符
!逻辑非运算符
~按位取反运算符
sizeof长度运算符
3/除➡️（从左到右）
*乘
%余数（取模）
4+加➡️（从左到右）
-减
5<<左移➡️（从左到右）
>>右移
6>大于➡️（从左到右）
>=大于等于
<小于
<=小于等于
7==等于➡️（从左到右）
!=不等于
8&按位与➡️（从左到右）
9^按位异或➡️（从左到右）
10|按位或➡️（从左到右）
11&&逻辑与➡️（从左到右）
12||逻辑或➡️（从左到右）
13?:条件运算符⬅️（从右到左）
14=赋值运算符⬅️（从右到左）
/=除后赋值
*=乘后赋值
%=取模后赋值
+=加后赋值
-=减后赋值
<<=左移后赋值
>>=右移后赋值
&=按位与后赋值
^=按位异或后赋值
|=按位或后赋值
15,逗号运算符➡️（从左到右）
WARNING
  • ① 不要过多的依赖运算符的优先级来控制表达式的执行顺序，这样可读性太差，尽量使用小括号来控制表达式的执行顺序。
  • ② 不要把一个表达式写得过于复杂，如果一个表达式过于复杂，则把它分成几步来完成。
  • ③ 运算符优先级不用刻意地去记忆，总体上：一元运算符 > 算术运算符 > 关系运算符 > 逻辑运算符 > 三元运算符 > 赋值运算符。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 取值运算符 * 和取地址运算符 & 的优先级相同，并且运算方向都是从右向左！！！
  • ② 逗号运算符 , 的优先级最低，并且运算方向是从左向右！！！
第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐） ​
4.1 概述 ​
4.2 普通变量和指针变量的区别 ​
在 CLion 中使用 GDB 调试时，可以通过反编译代码来查看指针变量和普通变量的区别。下面是具体的步骤：
设置 GDB 调试器 ​
  1. 打开 CLion，并加载你的项目。
  2. 确保你使用的是带有 GDB 支持的工具链（如 GCC 工具链）。
  3. 在 CLion 的设置中，确保调试器设置为 GDB。
编译你的代码 ​
确保在编译你的代码时使用了调试信息生成选项（如 -g）。你可以在 CMakeLists.txt 文件中添加以下行：
cmake
set(CMAKE_CXX_FLAGS "\${CMAKE_CXX_FLAGS} -g")
开始调试 ​
  1. 设置断点：在代码中你想要查看变量的地方设置一个断点。
  2. 启动调试：点击调试按钮启动调试会话。
查看变量 ​
当调试器在断点处暂停时，你可以在调试控制台中使用 GDB 命令来查看变量。以下是一些常用的 GDB 命令：
  • print variable_name：打印变量的值。
  • info locals：打印当前作用域中的所有局部变量。
  • whatis variable_name：显示变量的类型。
区分指针变量和普通变量 ​
指针变量和普通变量的主要区别在于它们的类型和存储的内容。指针变量存储的是地址，而普通变量存储的是实际的值。通过 GDB 命令可以很容易地看到这种区别。
示例 ​
假设有如下代码：
cpp
#include <iostream>
-
-int main() {
-    int a = 10;
-    int *p = &a;
-    std::cout << "a: " << a << ", p: " << p << std::endl;
-    return 0;
-}
在 CLion 中设置断点并开始调试，程序将在 std::cout 行暂停。此时在调试控制台中输入以下命令：
  • print a：输出变量 a 的值，应该是 10。
  • print p：输出指针变量 p 的值，即 a 的地址。
  • print *p：输出指针 p 指向的值，即 10。
通过这些命令，你可以看到指针变量 p 实际上存储的是一个地址，而普通变量 a 存储的是一个整数值。
使用反汇编 ​
在某些情况下，你可能需要查看反汇编代码来更深入地理解变量的存储方式。使用以下命令可以查看当前函数的反汇编代码：
  • disassemble：反汇编当前函数的代码。
  • x/4wx &a：查看变量 a 的内存内容。
总结 ​
在 CLion 中使用 GDB 调试时，通过查看变量值和反汇编代码，可以清楚地区分指针变量和普通变量。指针变量存储地址，而普通变量存储实际的值，通过适当的 GDB 命令可以轻松辨别两者的区别。
第五章：指针的运算（⭐） ​
5.1 概述 ​
5.2 总结 ​
  • 在 C 语言中，普通变量是直接存储数据的变量。对于普通变量，支持的操作包括：
    • ① 赋值操作：给变量赋值，如：int a = 5。
    • ② 算术运算：可以对数值类型的普通变量进行加、减、乘、除等运算，如：a + b、a - b、a * b、a / b
    • ③ 关系运算：可以进行比较运算（大于、小于、等于等），如： a > b、a == b。
    • ④ 逻辑运算：对布尔类型的值进行与、或、非运算，如： a && b、a || b、!a。
    • ⑤ 位运算：对整数类型的值进行位操作（与、或、异或、取反、左移、右移等），如： a & b、a | b、a ^ b、~a、a << 2、a >> 2。
    • ⑥ 自增自减运算：a++、--a 等。
  • 在 C 语言中，指针变量存储的是另一个变量的地址。对于指针变量，支持的操作包括：
    • ① 赋值操作：可以将一个地址赋值给指针，如： int *p = &a;。
    • ② 解引用操作：通过指针访问它指向的变量，如： *p = 10; 修改指向变量的值。
    • ③ 指针运算： 
      • 指针和整数值的加减运算：指针可以进行整数的加减运算，用于访问数组或结构体成员，如： p + 1。
      • 指针的自增和自减运算：指的是内存地址的向前或向后移动，如：p++、p--。
      • 指针间的相减运算：两个指向同一数组的指针相减可以得到它们之间的元素个数，如： ptr1 - ptr2。
      • 指针间的比较运算：可以比较两个指针的大小，比较的是各自内存地址的大小，如： p1 == p2、p1 != p2。
    • ④ 数组访问：指针可以用于访问数组中的元素，通过 *(p + i) 访问第 i 个元素。
    • ⑤ 指向指针的指针：可以声明指向指针的指针，即多级指针，如：int **pp = &p;。
WARNING
在使用指针时，务必小心避免野指针和内存泄漏等问题。
在C语言中，同类指针相减的结果是一个整数，它表示两个指针之间相隔多少个指向的对象单位，而不是它们在内存中的字节偏移量。这种对象单位是指针所指向的具体类型的大小。
举个例子来说，如果你有两个指向整数数组元素的指针 p 和 q，那么 p - q 的结果将是 p 指向的数组元素的索引与 q 指向的数组元素索引之间的差值。这个差值代表了在数组中相隔多少个整数元素，而不是它们在内存中的字节偏移量。
这种设计的优势在于，它使得指针运算更加直观和便于理解，特别是在处理数组和其他连续存储的数据结构时。因为指针运算结果的单位是根据指针所指向的具体类型来计算的，这样可以确保不同平台上的程序行为是一致的，不会受到底层硬件架构或者字节对齐规则的影响。
在C语言中，数组名和指针有很多相似之处，但数组名并不是指针变量。数组名实际是一个常量，它指向数组的第一个元素的地址。为了证明这一点，可以通过以下几个方面来说明：
  1. 数组名表示数组首地址： 数组名可以作为一个指针使用，数组名本身表示的是数组首地址。
    c
    int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
-int *ptr = arr; // 这句话是合法的，ptr现在指向arr[0]
-printf("%p\\n", arr);  // 打印数组名，会打印数组首地址
-printf("%p\\n", &arr[0]);  // 打印第一个元素的地址
  2. 数组名是常量指针： 数组名是一个常量指针，不能改变它指向的位置，而指针变量可以改变它指向的位置。
    c
    int arr[5];
-int *ptr = arr;  // 合法，ptr指向arr[0]
-ptr++;  // 合法，ptr现在指向arr[1]
-
-// arr++;  // 非法，编译错误，因为数组名是常量，不能改变
  3. sizeof运算符的结果不同： 使用sizeof运算符对数组名和指针变量会得到不同的结果，数组名会返回整个数组的大小，而指针变量会返回指针本身的大小。
    c
    int arr[5];
-int *ptr = arr;
-
-printf("sizeof(arr) = %lu\\n", sizeof(arr));  // 返回数组的大小，5 * sizeof(int)
-printf("sizeof(ptr) = %lu\\n", sizeof(ptr));  // 返回指针的大小，通常是4或8字节
  4. 地址运算符的结果不同： 使用地址运算符&对数组名和指针变量会得到不同的结果，对数组名使用&会返回数组的地址，而对指针变量使用&会返回指针变量本身的地址。
    c
    int arr[5];
-int *ptr = arr;
-
-printf("Address of array: %p\\n", &arr);  // 返回整个数组的地址
-printf("Address of pointer: %p\\n", &ptr);  // 返回指针变量ptr的地址
综上所述，通过这些示例和解释，可以看出数组名虽然在某些场合下可以像指针一样使用，但它并不是一个真正的指针变量，而是一个常量，表示数组的首地址。
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  • 指针是 C 语言中最重要的概念之一，也是最难以理解的概念之一。
  • 指针是 C 语言的精髓，要想掌握 C 语言就需要深入地了解指针。
第一章：颇具争议的指针 ​
1.1 概述 ​
  • 目前而言，操作系统几乎都是通过 C 语言来编写和维护的；而 C 语言提供了指针的用法，其能直接操作内存地址，是个非常强大和灵活的工具；但是，需要开发者小心谨慎的使用，以确保程序的稳定性和安全性。
NOTE
之所以指针在 C 语言中颇具争议，是因为一方面其功能强大，直接操作内存地址；另一方面，又很危险，不正确的使用指针的方式，非常容易导致程序崩溃。
  • 如果没有能很好的使用指针，就会带来一系列的问题，如：
    • ① 空指针引用（Null Pointer Dereference）：当一个指针没有正确初始化或者被赋予了空（NULL）值时，如果程序尝试访问该指针所指向的内存，会导致运行时错误，甚至导致程序崩溃。
    • ② 野指针（Dangling Pointers）：指针指向的内存地址曾经分配给某个变量或对象，但后来该变量或对象被释放或者移动，导致指针仍指向已经无效的内存位置。对野指针进行操作可能会导致未定义的行为或程序崩溃。
    • ③ 指针算术错误：在进行指针运算时，如果没有正确管理指针的偏移量或者超出了数组的边界，可能会导致指针指向错误的内存位置，从而影响程序的正确性和安全性。
    • ④ 内存泄漏：如果动态分配的内存通过指针分配，但在不再需要时没有正确释放，会导致内存泄漏，长时间运行的程序可能会耗尽系统资源。
  • 为了减少指针带来的风险，开发人员可以采取以下的措施：
    • ① 良好的编程实践：确保指针的初始化和使用是安全的，避免空指针引用和野指针问题。
    • ② 边界检查：在进行指针运算时，始终确保不会超出数组或内存分配的边界。
    • ③ 使用指针和引用的适当性：在可能的情况下，可以考虑使用更安全的语言特性，如：引用（在 C++ 等编程语言中）或者更高级别的数据结构来代替裸指针，从而减少指针使用时的潜在风险。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 既然指针很危险，那么通过一系列的手段将指针包装或屏蔽，以达到程序安全的目的（这是现代化的高级编程语言解决的思路，如：Java、Go、Rust 等）。
  • ② 之所以，指针还需要学习，是因为在嵌入式等领域，其机器的资源（CPU、内存等）非常有限；而现代化的高级编程语言虽然安全，但是需要的系统资源也庞大。
  • ③ 我们知道，编译型的程序不管编译过程如何复杂，至少需要两步：编译和运行。通常，我们也将这两步称为编译期和运行期。C 语言中的指针之所以危险就在于程序要在运行的时候才会发现问题（后知后觉）；而现代化的高级编程语言中的编译器在程序编译的时候就会发现问题（提前发现问题）。
  • ④ C 语言的编译器之所以这么设计的原因，就在于当时的内存和 CPU 是非常有限（PDP-7 早期小型计算机，CPU：18 bit 的电子管逻辑，内存：4kb ）和昂贵（72,000 $），如果加入安全限制的功能，会远远超过整个系统的资源。
1.2 现代化高级编程语言是如何解决指针危险的？ ​
  • C++采用了如下的策略和机制，来解决指针危险操作的：
    • ① 智能指针： C++ 引入了智能指针（如std::shared_ptr、std::unique_ptr），这些指针提供了自动资源管理和所有权的语义。std::unique_ptr确保只有一个指针可以访问给定的资源，从而避免了传统指针的悬空引用和内存泄漏问题。std::shared_ptr允许多个指针共享一个资源，并在所有引用释放后自动释放。
    • ② 引用： C++ 中的引用（如：&符号）提供了更安全的间接访问方法，与指针相比，引用不能重新绑定到不同的对象，从而减少了意外的指针错误。
  • Go采用了如下的策略和机制，来解决指针危险操作的：
    • ① 内存管理和垃圾回收： Go 语言通过自动垃圾回收器管理内存，减少了手动内存管理所带来的指针操作错误。Go 的垃圾回收器定期扫描并释放不再使用的内存，避免了内存泄漏和悬空指针问题。
    • ② 指针的安全性： Go 语言的指针是受限的，不支持指针运算，从而减少了指针操作可能带来的风险。
  • Rust采用了如下的策略和机制，来解决指针危险操作的：
    • ① 所有权和借用： Rust 引入了所有权和借用的概念，编译器在编译时静态分析所有权转移和引用的生命周期。这种机制避免了数据竞争和空指针解引用等运行时错误，使得在编译时就能够保证内存安全。
    • ② 生命周期： Rust 的生命周期系统确保引用的有效性和安全性，防止了悬空引用和指针乱用。
  • Java采用了如下的策略和机制，来解决指针危险操作的：
    • ① 引用类型和自动内存管理： Java 中所有的对象引用都是通过引用来访问的，而不是直接的指针。Java 的自动垃圾回收器负责管理内存，从而避免了手动内存管理可能导致的指针错误，如：内存泄漏和悬空指针。
    • ② 强类型系统和异常处理： Java 的强类型系统和异常处理机制减少了指针操作带来的风险，如：空指针解引用异常（NullPointerException）。编译器在编译时能够捕获许多潜在的类型错误，进一步增强了程序的安全性和可靠性。
IMPORTANT
总而言之，各种编程语言通过引入不同的策略和机制，如：智能指针、垃圾回收器、所有权和借用，以及强类型系统，有效地减少了指针操作所带来的各种安全性和可靠性问题，提升了程序的稳定性和开发效率。
第二章：回顾知识 ​
2.1 变量 ​
  • 变量就是保存程序运行过程中临时产生的值，其语法如下：
c
数据类型 变量名 = 值 ;
IMPORTANT
变量名（标识符）需要符合命名规则和命名规范！！！
  • 强制规范： 
    • ① 只能由小写或大写英文字母，0-9 或 _ 组成。
    • ② 不能以数字开头。
    • ③ 不可以是关键字。
    • ④ 标识符具有长度限制，不同编译器和平台会有所不同，一般限制在 63 个字符内。
    • ⑤ 严格区分大小写字母，如：Hello、hello 是不同的标识符。
  • 建议规范： 
    • ① 为了提高阅读性，使用有意义的单词，见名知意，如：sum，name，max，year 等。
    • ② 使用下划线连接多个单词组成的标识符，如：max_classes_per_student 等。
    • ③ 多个单词组成的标识符，除了使用下划线连接，也可以使用小驼峰命名法，除第一个单词外，后续单词的首字母大写，如： studentId、student_name 等。
    • ④ 不要出现仅靠大小写区分不同的标识符，如：name、Name 容易混淆。
    • ⑤ 系统内部使用了一些下划线开头的标识符，如：C99 标准添加的类型 _Bool，为防止冲突，建议开发者尽量避免使用下划线开头的标识符。
  • 变量名的作用，如下所示： 
    • ① 当我们编写代码的时候，使用变量名来关联某块内存的地址。
    • ② 当 CPU 执行的时候，会将变量名替换为具体的地址，再进行具体的操作。
2.2 普通变量和指针变量的区别 ​
  • 根据变量中存储的值的不同，我们可以将变量分为两类： 
    • 普通变量：变量所对应的内存中存储的是普通值。
    • 指针变量：变量所对应的内存中存储的是另一个变量的地址。
  • 如下图所示：
img
  • 普通变量和指针变量的相同点，如下所示： 
    • ① 普通变量有内存空间，指针变量也有内存空间。
    • ② 普通变量有内存地址，指针变量也有内存地址。
    • ③ 普通变量所对应的内存空间中有值，指针变量所对应的内存空间中也有值。
  • 普通变量和指针变量的不同点： 
    • ① 普通变量所对应的内存空间存储的是普通的值，如：整数、小数、字符等；指针变量所对应的内存空间存储的是另外一个变量的地址。
    • ② 普通变量有普通变量的运算方式，而指针变量有指针变量的运算方式（后续讲解）。
2.3 运算符 ​
2.3.1 概述 ​
  • 运算符是一种特殊的符号，用于数据的运算、赋值和比较等。
  • 表达式指的是一组运算数、运算符的组合，表达式一定具有值，一个变量或一个常量可以是表达式，变量、常量和运算符也可以组成表达式，如：
img
  • 操作数指的是参与运算的值或者对象，如：
  • 根据操作数的个数，可以将运算符分为： 
    • 一元运算符（一目运算符）。
    • 二元运算符（二目运算符）。
    • 三元运算符（三目运算符）。
  • 根据功能，可以将运算符分为： 
    • 算术运算符。
    • 关系运算符（比较运算符）。
    • 逻辑运算符。
    • 赋值运算符。
    • 逻辑运算符。
    • 位运算符。
    • 三元运算符。
NOTE
掌握一个运算符，需要关注以下几个方面：
  • ① 运算符的含义。
  • ② 运算符操作数的个数。
  • ③ 运算符所组成的表达式。
  • ④ 运算符有无副作用，即：运算后是否会修改操作数的值。
IMPORTANT
普通变量支持上述的所有运算符；而指针变量并非支持上述的所有运算符，且支持运算符的含义和普通变量相差较大！！！
2.3.2 运算符的优先级 ​
  • C 语言中运算符的优先级，如下所示：
优先级运算符名称或含义结合方向
1[]数组下标➡️（从左到右）
()圆括号
.成员选择（对象）
->成员选择（指针）
2-负号运算符⬅️（从右到左）
（类型）强制类型转换
++自增运算符
--自减运算符
*取值运算符
&取地址运算符
!逻辑非运算符
~按位取反运算符
sizeof长度运算符
3/除➡️（从左到右）
*乘
%余数（取模）
4+加➡️（从左到右）
-减
5<<左移➡️（从左到右）
>>右移
6>大于➡️（从左到右）
>=大于等于
<小于
<=小于等于
7==等于➡️（从左到右）
!=不等于
8&按位与➡️（从左到右）
9^按位异或➡️（从左到右）
10|按位或➡️（从左到右）
11&&逻辑与➡️（从左到右）
12||逻辑或➡️（从左到右）
13?:条件运算符⬅️（从右到左）
14=赋值运算符⬅️（从右到左）
/=除后赋值
*=乘后赋值
%=取模后赋值
+=加后赋值
-=减后赋值
<<=左移后赋值
>>=右移后赋值
&=按位与后赋值
^=按位异或后赋值
|=按位或后赋值
15,逗号运算符➡️（从左到右）
WARNING
  • ① 不要过多的依赖运算符的优先级来控制表达式的执行顺序，这样可读性太差，尽量使用小括号来控制表达式的执行顺序。
  • ② 不要把一个表达式写得过于复杂，如果一个表达式过于复杂，则把它分成几步来完成。
  • ③ 运算符优先级不用刻意地去记忆，总体上：一元运算符 > 算术运算符 > 关系运算符 > 逻辑运算符 > 三元运算符 > 赋值运算符。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 取值运算符 * 和取地址运算符 & 的优先级相同，并且运算方向都是从右向左！！！
  • ② 逗号运算符 , 的优先级最低，并且运算方向是从左向右！！！
第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐） ​
3.1 变量的访问方式 ​
  • 计算机中程序的运行都是在内存中进行的，变量也是内存中分配的空间，且不同类型的变量占据的空间大小不同，如：char 类型的变量是 1 个字节，short 类型的变量是 2 个字节，int 类型的变量是 4 个字节...
  • 之前我们都是通过变量名（普通变量）访问内存中存储的数据，如下所示：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+
+int main() {
+
+    // 定义变量，即：开辟一块内存空间，并将初始化值存储进去
+    int num = 10;
+
+    // 访问变量，即：访问变量在内存中对应的数据
+    printf("num = %d\\n", num);
+
+    // 给变量赋值，即：给变量在内存中占据的内存空间存储数据
+    num = 100;
+
+    // 访问变量，即：访问变量在内存中对应的数据
+    printf("num = %d\\n", num);
+
+    return 0;
+}
  • 上述的这种方式也称为直接访问；当然，既然有直接访问的方式，必然有间接访问的方式，如：指针。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 我们通过变量名（普通变量）访问内存中变量存储的数据，之所以称为直接访问的方式，是因为对于我们写程序而言，我们无需关心如何根据内存地址去获取变量对应的数据，以及如何根据内存地址将数据存储到对应的内存空间，这些操作步骤都是编译器帮助我们在底层完成的（自动化）。
  • ② 但是，我们也可以通过内存地址去操作内存中对应的数据（手动化），这种方式就称为间接访问的方式了，相对于直接访问方式来说，要理解的概念和操作的步骤要比之间直接访问方式要多很多，但是效率高。
3.2 内存地址和指针 ​
  • 其实，在之前《数组》中，我们就已经讲解了内存地址的概念了，即：操作系统为了更快的去管理内存中的数据，会将内存条按照字节划分为一个个的单元格，并为每个独立的小的单元格，分配唯一的编号，即：内存地址，如下所示：
NOTE
有了内存地址，就能加快数据的存取速度，可以类比生活中的字典，即：
  • ① 内存地址是计算机中用于标识内存中某个特定位置的数值。
  • ② 每个内存单元都有一个唯一的地址，这些地址可以用于访问和操作存储在内存中的数据。
  • 对于之前的代码，如下所示：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+
+int main() {
+
+    // 定义变量，即：开辟一块内存空间，并将初始化值存储进去
+    int num = 10;
+
+    return 0;
+}
  • 其在内存中，就是这样的，如下所示：
  • 虽然，之前我们在程序中都是通过变量名（普通变量）直接操作内存中的存储单元；但是，编译器底层还是会通过内存地址来找到所需要的存储单元，如下所示：
NOTE
通过内存地址找到所需要的存储单元，即：内存地址指向该存储单元。此时，就可以将内存地址形象化的描述为指针👉，那么：
  • ① 变量：命名的内存空间，用于存放各种类型的数据。
  • ② 变量名：变量名是给内存空间取一个容易记忆的名字，方便我们编写程序。
  • ③ 变量值：变量所对应的内存中的存储单元中存放的数据值。
  • ④ 变量的地址：变量所对应的内存中的存储单元的内存地址，也可以称为指针。
总结：内存地址 = 指针。
  • 普通变量所对应的内存空间存储的是普通的值，如：整数、小数、字符等；指针变量所对应的内存空间存储的是另外一个变量的地址（指针），如下所示：
NOTE
有的时候，为了方便阐述，我们会将指针变量称为指针。但是，需要记住的是：
  • 指针 = 内存地址。
  • 指针变量 = 变量中保存的是另一个变量的地址。
下文中提及的指针都是指针变量，不再阐述！！！
3.2 普通变量和指针变量的区别 ​
在 CLion 中使用 GDB 调试时，可以通过反编译代码来查看指针变量和普通变量的区别。下面是具体的步骤：
设置 GDB 调试器 ​
  1. 打开 CLion，并加载你的项目。
  2. 确保你使用的是带有 GDB 支持的工具链（如 GCC 工具链）。
  3. 在 CLion 的设置中，确保调试器设置为 GDB。
编译你的代码 ​
确保在编译你的代码时使用了调试信息生成选项（如 -g）。你可以在 CMakeLists.txt 文件中添加以下行：
cmake
set(CMAKE_CXX_FLAGS "\${CMAKE_CXX_FLAGS} -g")
开始调试 ​
  1. 设置断点：在代码中你想要查看变量的地方设置一个断点。
  2. 启动调试：点击调试按钮启动调试会话。
查看变量 ​
当调试器在断点处暂停时，你可以在调试控制台中使用 GDB 命令来查看变量。以下是一些常用的 GDB 命令：
  • print variable_name：打印变量的值。
  • info locals：打印当前作用域中的所有局部变量。
  • whatis variable_name：显示变量的类型。
区分指针变量和普通变量 ​
指针变量和普通变量的主要区别在于它们的类型和存储的内容。指针变量存储的是地址，而普通变量存储的是实际的值。通过 GDB 命令可以很容易地看到这种区别。
示例 ​
假设有如下代码：
cpp
#include <iostream>
+
+int main() {
+    int a = 10;
+    int *p = &a;
+    std::cout << "a: " << a << ", p: " << p << std::endl;
+    return 0;
+}
在 CLion 中设置断点并开始调试，程序将在 std::cout 行暂停。此时在调试控制台中输入以下命令：
  • print a：输出变量 a 的值，应该是 10。
  • print p：输出指针变量 p 的值，即 a 的地址。
  • print *p：输出指针 p 指向的值，即 10。
通过这些命令，你可以看到指针变量 p 实际上存储的是一个地址，而普通变量 a 存储的是一个整数值。
使用反汇编 ​
在某些情况下，你可能需要查看反汇编代码来更深入地理解变量的存储方式。使用以下命令可以查看当前函数的反汇编代码：
  • disassemble：反汇编当前函数的代码。
  • x/4wx &a：查看变量 a 的内存内容。
总结 ​
在 CLion 中使用 GDB 调试时，通过查看变量值和反汇编代码，可以清楚地区分指针变量和普通变量。指针变量存储地址，而普通变量存储实际的值，通过适当的 GDB 命令可以轻松辨别两者的区别。
第四章：指针的运算（⭐） ​
4.1 概述 ​
4.2 总结 ​
  • 在 C 语言中，普通变量是直接存储数据的变量。对于普通变量，支持的操作包括：
    • ① 赋值操作：给变量赋值，如：int a = 5。
    • ② 算术运算：可以对数值类型的普通变量进行加、减、乘、除等运算，如：a + b、a - b、a * b、a / b
    • ③ 关系运算：可以进行比较运算（大于、小于、等于等），如： a > b、a == b。
    • ④ 逻辑运算：对布尔类型的值进行与、或、非运算，如： a && b、a || b、!a。
    • ⑤ 位运算：对整数类型的值进行位操作（与、或、异或、取反、左移、右移等），如： a & b、a | b、a ^ b、~a、a << 2、a >> 2。
    • ⑥ 自增自减运算：a++、--a 等。
  • 在 C 语言中，指针变量存储的是另一个变量的地址。对于指针变量，支持的操作包括：
    • ① 赋值操作：可以将一个地址赋值给指针，如： int *p = &a;。
    • ② 解引用操作：通过指针访问它指向的变量，如： *p = 10; 修改指向变量的值。
    • ③ 指针运算： 
      • 指针和整数值的加减运算：指针可以进行整数的加减运算，用于访问数组或结构体成员，如： p + 1。
      • 指针的自增和自减运算：指的是内存地址的向前或向后移动，如：p++、p--。
      • 指针间的相减运算：两个指向同一数组的指针相减可以得到它们之间的元素个数，如： ptr1 - ptr2。
      • 指针间的比较运算：可以比较两个指针的大小，比较的是各自内存地址的大小，如： p1 == p2、p1 != p2。
    • ④ 数组访问：指针可以用于访问数组中的元素，通过 *(p + i) 访问第 i 个元素。
    • ⑤ 指向指针的指针：可以声明指向指针的指针，即多级指针，如：int **pp = &p;。
WARNING
在使用指针时，务必小心避免野指针和内存泄漏等问题。
在C语言中，同类指针相减的结果是一个整数，它表示两个指针之间相隔多少个指向的对象单位，而不是它们在内存中的字节偏移量。这种对象单位是指针所指向的具体类型的大小。
举个例子来说，如果你有两个指向整数数组元素的指针 p 和 q，那么 p - q 的结果将是 p 指向的数组元素的索引与 q 指向的数组元素索引之间的差值。这个差值代表了在数组中相隔多少个整数元素，而不是它们在内存中的字节偏移量。
这种设计的优势在于，它使得指针运算更加直观和便于理解，特别是在处理数组和其他连续存储的数据结构时。因为指针运算结果的单位是根据指针所指向的具体类型来计算的，这样可以确保不同平台上的程序行为是一致的，不会受到底层硬件架构或者字节对齐规则的影响。
在C语言中，数组名和指针有很多相似之处，但数组名并不是指针变量。数组名实际是一个常量，它指向数组的第一个元素的地址。为了证明这一点，可以通过以下几个方面来说明：
  1. 数组名表示数组首地址： 数组名可以作为一个指针使用，数组名本身表示的是数组首地址。
    c
    int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+int *ptr = arr; // 这句话是合法的，ptr现在指向arr[0]
+printf("%p\\n", arr);  // 打印数组名，会打印数组首地址
+printf("%p\\n", &arr[0]);  // 打印第一个元素的地址
  2. 数组名是常量指针： 数组名是一个常量指针，不能改变它指向的位置，而指针变量可以改变它指向的位置。
    c
    int arr[5];
+int *ptr = arr;  // 合法，ptr指向arr[0]
+ptr++;  // 合法，ptr现在指向arr[1]
+
+// arr++;  // 非法，编译错误，因为数组名是常量，不能改变
  3. sizeof运算符的结果不同： 使用sizeof运算符对数组名和指针变量会得到不同的结果，数组名会返回整个数组的大小，而指针变量会返回指针本身的大小。
    c
    int arr[5];
+int *ptr = arr;
+
+printf("sizeof(arr) = %lu\\n", sizeof(arr));  // 返回数组的大小，5 * sizeof(int)
+printf("sizeof(ptr) = %lu\\n", sizeof(ptr));  // 返回指针的大小，通常是4或8字节
  4. 地址运算符的结果不同： 使用地址运算符&对数组名和指针变量会得到不同的结果，对数组名使用&会返回数组的地址，而对指针变量使用&会返回指针变量本身的地址。
    c
    int arr[5];
+int *ptr = arr;
+
+printf("Address of array: %p\\n", &arr);  // 返回整个数组的地址
+printf("Address of pointer: %p\\n", &ptr);  // 返回指针变量ptr的地址
综上所述，通过这些示例和解释，可以看出数组名虽然在某些场合下可以像指针一样使用，但它并不是一个真正的指针变量，而是一个常量，表示数组的首地址。
`,90),k=[c];function g(u,E,b,y,m,F){return a(),i("div",null,k)}const v=s(h,[["render",g]]);export{A as __pageData,v as default};
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new file mode 100644
index 0000000..da45df9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/assets/notes_01_c-basic_06_xdx_index.md.Z0IDTw1X.lean.js
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
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index 3ace7ca..c619e46 100644
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diff --git a/index.html b/index.html
index ff0e672..0649801 100644
--- a/index.html
+++ b/index.html
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@
     
     
     
-    
+    
     
     
-    
+    
     
     
     
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@
   
   
     
许大仙
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diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/01_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/01_xdx/index.html
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     --depth 1 \
     --single-branch --branch=linux-msft-wsl-${KERNEL_VERSION} \
     https://github.com/microsoft/WSL2-Linux-Kernel.git
  • 编译内核代码：
shell
cd WSL2-Linux-Kernel
shell
make -j $(nproc) KCONFIG_CONFIG=Microsoft/config-wsl
  • 编译 perf 工具：
shell
cd tools/perf
shell
make clean && make
  • 复制到 PATH 变量所指向的路径中：
shell
cp perf /usr/bin/
9.4.3 整合 ​
  • CLion 中配置 perf 的路径：
  • 在 CLion 中通过 perf 运行代码：
9.5 Win 中文乱码问题 ​
  • 前文，我们提及到，在 Win 中，如果出现中文乱码问题，就需要去语言和区别设置系统区域的编码为 UTF-8 ；但是，这样可能会造成其它的软件出现中文乱码问题，如：Xshell 等。
NOTE
  • ① 之所以，修改系统的编码为 UTF-8 会出现问题，是因为早期的 Win 系统的中文默认编码是 GBK（目前也是，Win 并没有强制第三方软件使用 UTF-8 编码） ，而 Xshell 等也使用的这些编码，一旦我们修改为 UTF-8 之后，可能会造成这些第三方软件出现中文乱码问题（第三方软件适配问题，相信将来应该都会切换为 UTF-8 编码），体验较差！！！
  • ② 在 Linux 或 MacOS 之所以不会出现中文乱码的问题，是因为这些系统默认的编码就是 UTF-8 。
  • 其实，还有一种解决方案，如下所示：
  • 测试一下，是否配置成功：
9.6 CLion 中自动导入头文件 ​
  • 在 CLion 中，最为强大的功能就是直接输入函数，然后让 IDE 帮我们自动导入头文件，包括自定义的头文件，相当实用。
NOTE
  • ① CLion 中的自动导入头文件的快捷键是 Alt + Enter 。
  • ② CLion 中的自动提取变量的类型的快捷键是 Ctrl + Alt + V 。
  • 开启自动导入头文件的步骤，如下所示：

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- + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/02_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/02_xdx/index.html index e5a6221..bf6db28 100644 --- a/notes/01_c-basic/02_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/01_c-basic/02_xdx/index.html @@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ - + - + @@ -260,7 +260,7 @@ return 0; }

3.3 进制的运算规则 ​

  • 十进制的运算规则，如下所示：
    • 逢十进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当十（针对减法而言）。
  • 二进制的运算规则，如下所示：
    • 逢二进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当二（针对减法而言）。
  • 八进制的运算规则，如下所示：
    • 逢八进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当八（针对减法而言）。
  • 十六进制的运算规则，如下所示：
    • 逢十六进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当十六（针对减法而言）。

3.4 进制的转换 ​

3.4.1 概述 ​

  • 不同进制的转换，如下所示：

  • 在计算机中，数据是从右往左的方式排列的；其中，最右边的是低位，最左边的是高位，即：

3.4.2 二进制和十进制的转换 ​

3.4.2.1 二进制转换为十进制 ​

  • 规则：从最低位开始，将每个位上的数提取出来，乘以 2 的 （位数 - 1 ）次方，然后求和。

NOTE

  • ① 在学术界，将这种计算规则，称为位权相加法。
  • ② 八进制转换为十进制、十六进制转换为十进制和二进制转换为十进制的算法相同！！！
  • 示例：十进制转十进制

  • 示例：二进制转十进制

3.4.2.2 十进制转换二进制 ​

  • 规则：将该数不断除以 2 ，直到商为 0 为止，然后将每步得到的余数倒过来，就是对应的二进制。

NOTE

  • ① 在学术界，将这种计算规则，称为短除法或连续除2取余法。
  • ② 很好理解，只有不断地除以 2 ，就能保证最大的数字不超过 2 ，这不就是二进制（只能有 0 或 1）吗？
  • ③ 八进制转换为二进制、十六进制转换为二进制和十进制转换为二进制的算法相同！！！
  • 示例：十进制转十进制

  • 示例：十进制转二进制

3.4.3 二进制转八进制 ​

  • 规则：每 3 位二进制就是一个八进制。

  • 示例：011 101 001 -> 351

3.4.4 二进制转十六进制 ​

  • 规则：每 4 位二进制就是一个十六进制。

  • 示例：1110 1001 -> 0xE9

3.5 原码、反码和补码 ​

3.5.1 概述 ​

  • 机器数：一个数在计算机的存储形式是二进制，我们称这些二进制数为机器数。机器数可以是有符号的，用机器数的最高位来存放符号位，0 表示正数，1 表示负数。

  • 真值：因为机器数带有符号位，所以机器数的形式值不等于其真实表示的值（真值），以机器数 1000 0001 为例，其真正表示的值（首位是符号位）为 -1，而形式值却是 129 ，因此将带有符号位的机器数的真正表示的值称为机器数的真值。

3.5.2 原码 ​

  • 原码的表示与机器数真值表示的一样，即用第一位表示符号，其余位表示数值。
  • 规则：
    • 正数的原码是它本身对应的二进制数，符号位是 0 。
    • 负数的原码是它本身绝对值对应的二进制数，但是符号位是 1 。
  • +1 的原码，使用 8 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（8位二进制数）
+10000 0001
  • -1 的原码，使用 8 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（8位二进制数）
-11000 0001

IMPORTANT

按照原码的规则，会出现 +0 和 -0 的情况，即：0000 0000（+0）、1000 0000（-0），显然不符合实际情况；所以，计算机底层虽然存储和计算的都是二进数，但显然不是原码。

3.5.3 反码 ​

  • 规则：

    • 正数的反码和它的原码相同。
    • 负数的反码是在其原码的基础上，符号位不变，其余各位取反。

  • +1 的反码，使用 8 位二进数来表示，就是：

十进制数原码（8位二进制数）反码（8位二进制数）
+10000 00010000 0001
  • -1 的反码，使用 8 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（8位二进制数）反码（8位二进制数）
-11000 00011111 1110

IMPORTANT

按照反码的规则，如果是 +0，对应的原码是 0000 0000；那么，其反码还是 0000 0000 ；如果是 -0，对应的原码是 1000 0000，其反码是 1111 1111，显然不符合实际情况；所以，计算机底层虽然存储和计算的都是二进数，但显然不是反码。

3.5.4 补码 ​

  • 规则：

    • 正数的补码和它的原码相同。
    • 负数的补码是在其反码的基础上 + 1 。

  • +1 的补码，使用 8 位二进数来表示，就是：

十进制数原码（8位二进制数）反码（8位二进制数）补码（8位二进制数）
+10000 00010000 00010000 0001
  • -1 的补码，使用 8 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（8位二进制数）反码（8位二进制数）补码（8位二进制数）
-11000 00011111 11101111 1111
  • 如果 0 ，按照 +0 的情况进行处理，即：

  • 如果 0 ，按照 -0 的情况进行处理，即：

IMPORTANT

  • ① 补码表示法解决了原码和反码存在的两种零（+0 和 -0）的问题，即：在补码表示法中，只有一个零，即 0000 0000。
  • ②补码使得加法运算和减法运算可以统一处理，通过将减法运算转换为加法运算，可以简化硬件设计，提高了运算效率。
  • ③ 计算机底层存储和计算的都是二进数的补码。

3.5.5 总结 ​

  • ① 正数的原码、反码和补码都是一样的，三码合一。
  • ② 负数的反码是在其原码的基础上，按位取反（0 变 1 ，1 变 0 ），符号位不变；负数的补码是其反码 + 1 。
  • ③ 0 的补码是 0 。

3.6 计算机底层为什么使用补码？ ​

  • 如果计算是 2 - 2 ，那么可以转换为 2 + (-2)，这样计算机内部在处理减法计算的时候，就会将其转换为加法计算的形式，以简化硬件设计和提高计算效率。
  • 最高位表示符号位，由于符号位的存在，如果使用原码来计算，就会导致计算结果不正确，即：

  • 补码的设计可以巧妙的让符号位也参与计算，并且可以得到正确的计算结果，即：

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/03_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/03_xdx/index.html index 72c812a..d4222f4 100644 --- a/notes/01_c-basic/03_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/01_c-basic/03_xdx/index.html @@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ - + - + @@ -789,7 +789,7 @@ return 0; }

2.8 运算符优先级 ​

  • C 语言中运算符的优先级，如下所示：
优先级运算符名称或含义结合方向
1[]数组下标➡️（从左到右）
()圆括号
.成员选择（对象）
->成员选择（指针）
2-负号运算符⬅️（从右到左）
（类型）强制类型转换
++自增运算符
--自减运算符
*取值运算符
&取地址运算符
!逻辑非运算符
~按位取反运算符
sizeof长度运算符
3/除➡️（从左到右）
*乘
%余数（取模）
4+加➡️（从左到右）
-减
5<<左移➡️（从左到右）
>>右移
6>大于➡️（从左到右）
>=大于等于
<小于
<=小于等于
7==等于➡️（从左到右）
!=不等于
8&按位与➡️（从左到右）
9^按位异或➡️（从左到右）
10|按位或➡️（从左到右）
11&&逻辑与➡️（从左到右）
12||逻辑或➡️（从左到右）
13?:条件运算符⬅️（从右到左）
14=赋值运算符⬅️（从右到左）
/=除后赋值
*=乘后赋值
%=取模后赋值
+=加后赋值
-=减后赋值
<<=左移后赋值
>>=右移后赋值
&=按位与后赋值
^=按位异或后赋值
|=按位或后赋值
15,逗号运算符➡️（从左到右）

WARNING

  • ① 不要过多的依赖运算符的优先级来控制表达式的执行顺序，这样可读性太差，尽量使用小括号来控制表达式的执行顺序。
  • ② 不要把一个表达式写得过于复杂，如果一个表达式过于复杂，则把它分成几步来完成。
  • ③ 运算符优先级不用刻意地去记忆，总体上：一元运算符 > 算术运算符 > 关系运算符 > 逻辑运算符 > 三元运算符 > 赋值运算符。

第三章：附录 ​

3.1 字符集和字符集编码 ​

3.3.1 概述 ​

  • 字符集和字符集编码（简称编码）计算机系统中处理文本数据的两个基本概念，它们密切相关但又有区别。
  • 字符集（Character Set）是一组字符的集合，其中每个字符都被分配了一个唯一的编号（通常是数字）。字符可以是字母、数字、符号、控制代码（如换行符）等。字符集定义了可以表示的字符的范围，但它并不直接定义如何将这些字符存储在计算机中。

NOTE

ASCII（美国信息交换标准代码）是最早期和最简单的字符集之一，它只包括了英文字母、数字和一些特殊字符，共 128 个字符。每个字符都分配给了一个从 0 到 127 的数字。

  • 字符集编码（Character Encoding，简称编码）是一种方案或方法，它定义了如何将字符集中的字符转换为计算机存储和传输的数据（通常是一串二进制数字）。简而言之，编码是字符到二进制数据之间的映射规则。

NOTE

ASCII 编码方案定义了如何将 ASCII 字符集中的每个字符表示为 7 位的二进制数字。例如：大写字母'A'在 ASCII 编码中表示为二进制的1000001，十进制的 65 。

  • 字符集和字符集编码之间的关系如下：

  • Linux 中安装帮助手册：

3.3.2 ASCII 编码 ​

  • 从冯·诺依曼体系结构中，我们知道，计算机中所有的数据和指令都是以二进制的形式表示的；所以，计算机中对于文本数据的数据也是以二进制来存储的，那么对应的流程如下：

  • 我们知道，计算机是上个世纪 60 年代在美国研制成功的，为了实现字符和二进制的转换，美国就制定了一套字符编码，即英语字符和二进制位之间的关系，即 ASCII （American Standard Code for Information Interchange）编码：
    • ASCII 编码只包括了英文字符、数字和一些特殊字符，一共 128 个字符，并且每个字符都分配了唯一的数字，范围是 0 - 127。
    • ASCII 编码中的每个字符都使用 7 位的二进制数字表示；但是，计算机中的存储的最小单位是 1 B = 8 位，那么最高位统一规定为 0 。

NOTE

  • ① 其实，早期是没有字符集的概念的，只是后来为了解决乱码问题，而产生了字符集的概念。
  • ② 对于英文体系来说，a-zA-Z0-9以及一些特殊字符一共 128 就可以满足实际存储需求；所以，在也是为什么 ASCII 码使用 7 位二进制（2^7 = 128 ）来存储的。
  • 在操作系统中，就内置了对应的编码表，Linux 也不例外；可以使用如下的命令查看：
shell
man ascii

  • 其对应的 ASCII 编码表，如下所示：

  • 但是，随着计算机的发展，计算机开始了东征之路，由美国传播到东方：

  • 先是传播到了欧洲，欧洲在兼容 ASCII 编码的基础上，推出了 ISO8859-1 编码，即：
    • ISO8859-1 编码包括基本的拉丁字母表、数字、标点符号，以及西欧语言中特有的一些字符，如：法语中的 è、德语中的 ü 等。
    • ISO 8859-1 为每个字符分配一个单字节（8 位）编码，意味着它可以表示最多 256 （2^8）个不同的字符（编号从 0 到 255）。
    • ISO 8859-1 的前 128 个字符与 ASCII 编码完全一致，这使得 ASCII 编码的文本可以无缝转换为 ISO 8859-1 编码。

  • 计算机继续传播到了亚洲，亚洲（双字节）各个国家分别给出了自己国家对应的字符集编码，如：
    • 日本推出了 Shift-JIS 编码：
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围：
        • 第一个字节：129 - 159 和 224 - 239 。
        • 第二个字节：64 - 126 和 128 - 252 。
    • 韩国推出了 EUC-KR 编码：
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围：从 41281 - 65278。
    • 中国推出了 GBK 编码：
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围：33088 - 65278 。

NOTE

  • ① 通过上面日本、韩国、中国的编码十进制范围，我们可以看到，虽然这些编码系统在技术上的编码范围存在重叠（特别是在高位字节区域），但因为它们各自支持的字符集完全不同，所以实际上它们并不直接冲突。
  • ② 但是，如果一个中国人通过 GBK 编码写的文章，通过邮件发送给韩国人，因为韩国和中国在字符集编码上的高位字节有重叠部分，必然会造成歧义。

3.3.3 Unicode 编码 ​

  • 在 Unicode 之前，世界上存在着数百种不同的编码系统，每一种编码系统都是为了支持特定语言或一组语言的字符集。这些编码系统，包括：ASCII、ISO 8859 系列、GBK、Shift-JIS、EUC-KR 等，它们各自有不同的字符范围和编码方式。这种多样性虽然在局部范围内解决了字符表示的问题，但也带来了以下几个方面的挑战：

    • 编码冲突：由于不同的编码系统可以为相同的字节值分配不同的字符，因此在不同编码之间转换文本时，如果没有正确处理编码信息，就很容易产生乱码。这种编码冲突在尝试处理多种语言的文本时尤为突出。
    • 编码的复杂性：随着全球化的发展，软件和系统需要支持越来越多的语言，这就要求开发者和系统同时处理多种不同的编码系统。这不仅增加了开发和维护的复杂性，而且也增加了出错的风险。
    • 资源限制：在早期计算机技术中，内存和存储资源相对有限。不同的编码标准要求系统存储多套字符集数据，这无疑增加了对有限资源的消耗。
    • ……

  • 针对上述的种种问题，为了推行全球化，Unicode 应运而生，Unicode 的核心规则和设计原则是建立一个全球统一的字符集，使得世界上所有的文字和符号都能被唯一地识别和使用，无论使用者位于何地或使用何种语言。这套规则包括了字符的编码、表示、处理和转换机制，旨在确保不同系统和软件间能够无缝交换和处理文本数据。

    • 通用字符集 (UCS)：Unicode 为每一个字符分配一个唯一的编号（称为“码点”）。这些码点被组织在一个统一的字符集中，官方称之为 “通用字符集”（Universal Character Set，UCS）。码点通常表示为 U+ 后跟一个十六进制数，例如：U+0041 代表大写的英文字母 “A”。
    • 编码平面和区段：Unicode 码点被划分为多个 “平面（Planes）”，每个平面包含 65536（16^4）个码点。目前，Unicode定义了 17 个平面（从 0 到16），每个平面被分配了一个编号，从 “基本多文种平面（BMP）” 的 0 开始，到 16 号平面结束。这意味着 Unicode 理论上可以支持超过 110万（17*65536）个码点。

  • Unicode 仅仅只是字符集，给每个字符设置了唯一的数字编号而已，却没有给出这些数字编号实际如何存储，可以通过如下命令查看：

  • 为了在计算机系统中表示 Unicode 字符，定义了几种编码方案，这些方案包括 UTF-8、UTF-16 和 UTF-32 等。
    • UTF-8：使用 1 - 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，兼容 ASCII，是网络上最常用的编码。
    • UTF-16：使用 2 - 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，适合于需要经常处理基本多文种平面之外字符的应用。
    • UTF-32：使用固定的 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，简化了字符处理，但增加了存储空间的需求。
  • Unicode 字符集和对应的UTF-8 字符编码之间的关系，如下所示：

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/04_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/04_xdx/index.html index 51264a7..1aec2e3 100644 --- a/notes/01_c-basic/04_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/01_c-basic/04_xdx/index.html @@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ - + - + @@ -772,7 +772,7 @@ return 0; }

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/05_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/05_xdx/index.html index 6e82054..3d19941 100644 --- a/notes/01_c-basic/05_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/01_c-basic/05_xdx/index.html @@ -8,11 +8,11 @@ - + - - + + @@ -679,7 +679,7 @@ printf("字符串是：%s\n", str); return 0; -}

第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐） ​

5.1 内存和内存地址 ​

5.1.1 内存 ​

  • 内存是一种计算机硬件，是软件在运行过程中，用来临时存储数据的。在生活中，最为常见的内存就是随机存取存储器（RAM，内存条），其特点如下所示：

    • ① 生活中最常见的内存类型，用于存储当前运行的程序和数据。
    • ② 内存是易失性存储器，这意味着断电后数据会丢失。
    • ③ 它具有高速读写特性，适用于需要快速访问的操作。

  • 内存条的外观，如下所示：

  • 像我们平常使用记事本软件一样，当我们输入一些文字的时候，其实是将数据临时保存在内存中的，如下所示：

NOTE

  • ① 目前，很多软件都很智能，如果用户没有将数据到保存文件中，将显示红色，以警告用户还没有保存数据，提醒用户需要尽快保存数据！！！
  • ② 但是，也有很多软件提供了自动保存数据的功能，其原理就是定时（1s、3s、5s）将内存中的数据刷新到文件中，以防止数据丢失！！！
  • ③ 将数据从内存存储到文件中，专业的说法是落盘（落在磁盘上）。

  • 此时，如果我们在没有保存的过程下，将记事本软件关闭，那么刚才输入的文字将丢失；下次，再打开同样的文件（将数据从磁盘加载进内存，再交给 CPU），之前输入的文字将不复存在，如下所示：

NOTE

  • ① 目前，很多软件都很智能，如果你没有保存，将提醒你是否保存或丢失刚才输入的文字。
  • ② 但是，也有很多软件提供了自动保存数据的功能，其原理就是定时（1s、3s、5s）将内存中的数据刷新到文件中，以防止数据丢失！！！
  • ③ 将数据从内存存储到文件中，专业的说法是落盘（落在磁盘上）。

IMPORTANT

内存就是软件在运行过程中，用来临时存储数据的，最为重要的两个步骤就是：

  • ① 将数据保存到内存中。
  • ② 从内存中的对应位置将数据取出来。

5.1.2 内存地址 ​

  • 在这个计算机的内存条，动不动就 32GB、64GB 、128GB 或更高的年代，如下所示：

  • 如果有一个 int （4 个字节）类型的数据 2 ，如何将这个数据保存到内存中？（对应上述的步骤 ①）

  • 就算数据 2 已经保存到内存中，那么内存中那么多的数据，我们又该如何取出呢？（对应上述的步骤 ②）

IMPORTANT

答案就是内存地址。

  • 操作系统为了更快的去管理内存中的数据，会将内存条按照字节划分为一个个的单元格，如下所示：

NOTE

计算机中存储单位的换算，如下所示：

  • 1 B = 8 bit。
  • 1 KB = 1024 B。
  • 1 MB = 1024 KB。
  • 1 GB = 1024 MB。
  • 1 TB = 1024 GB 。
  • ……
  • 为了方便管理，每个独立的小单元格，都有自己唯一的编号（内存地址），如下所示：

  • 之所以，加了内存地址，就能加快数据的存取速度，可以类比生活中的字典：

    • 如果没有使用拼音查找法或部首查找法，我们需要一页一页，一行一行的，在整个字典中去搜索我们想要了解的汉字。

    • 如果使用拼音查找法或部首查找法，我们可以很快的定位到所要了解汉字所在的页数，加快了搜索的效率。

  • 同样的道理，如果没有内存地址，我们只能一个个的去寻找想要的数据，效率非常低下，如下所示：

  • 如果使用内存地址，我们就可以直接定位到指定的数据，效率非常高，如下所示：

IMPORTANT

  • ① 内存地址是计算机中用于标识内存中某个特定位置的数值。
  • ② 每个内存单元都有一个唯一的地址，这些地址可以用于访问和操作存储在内存中的数据。
  • 实际中的内存地址，并不是像上面的 001 、002 、... 之类的数字，而是有自己的规则，即：内存地址规则。

NOTE

  • ① 32 位的操作系统中，内存地址以 32 位的二进制表示。
  • ② 64 位的操作系统中，内存地址以 64 位的二进制表示。
  • 在 32 位的操作系统中，内存地址的范围是：0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 ~ 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 （2 ^ 32 次方）。

NOTE

在 32 位的操作系统中，一共有 4,294,967,296 个内存地址，其最大支持的内存大小是 4,294,967,296 字节，即 4 GB 。

  • 在 64 位的操作系统中，内存地址的范围是：0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 ~ 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 （2 ^ 64 次方）。

NOTE

  • ① 在 64 位的操作系统中，一共有 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 个内存地址，其最大支持的内存大小是 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 字节，即 17,179 TB 。
  • ② 虽然，从理论上 64 位的操作系统支持的内存最大容量是 17,179 TB；但是，实际操作系统会有所限制，如：win11 的 64 位支持的最大内存是 128 GB ~ 6 TB，Linux 64 位支持的最大内存通常是 256 TB。
  • 在实际开发中，64 位操作系统的内存地址表现形式，如：0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0000 1111 1010 0000 0000 0010 0000 0000 0010 0000 1000，实在是太长了，我们通常转换为十六进制，以方便阅读，如：0x000010FA00200208 。

IMPORTANT

总结：

  • ① 内存地址是内存中每个单元的编号。
  • ② 内存地址的作用是操作系统用来快速管理内存空间的。
  • ③ 在 32 位操作系统上，内存地址以 32 位的二进制数字表示，最大支持的的内存是 4 GB，所以 32 位操作系统已经被淘汰。
  • ④ 在 64 位操作系统上，内存地址以 64 位的二进制数字表示，由于表示形式太长，我们通常会转为十六进制，以方便阅读。

5.2 内存中的变量 ​

  • 在 C 语言中，数据类型的种类很多，如：short、int、long、float、double、char 等。以 int 类型为例，在 32 位或 64 位操作系统中的，int 类型的变量都是占 4 个字节，当我们在代码中这么定义变量，如：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+}

第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐） ​

5.1 内存和内存地址 ​

5.1.1 内存 ​

  • 内存是一种计算机硬件，是软件在运行过程中，用来临时存储数据的。在生活中，最为常见的内存就是随机存取存储器（RAM，内存条），其特点如下所示：

    • ① 生活中最常见的内存类型，用于存储当前运行的程序和数据。
    • ② 内存是易失性存储器，这意味着断电后数据会丢失。
    • ③ 它具有高速读写特性，适用于需要快速访问的操作。

  • 内存条的外观，如下所示：

  • 像我们平常使用记事本软件一样，当我们输入一些文字的时候，其实是将数据临时保存在内存中的，如下所示：

NOTE

  • ① 目前，很多软件都很智能，如果用户没有将数据到保存文件中，将显示红色，以警告用户还没有保存数据，提醒用户需要尽快保存数据！！！
  • ② 但是，也有很多软件提供了自动保存数据的功能，其原理就是定时（1s、3s、5s）将内存中的数据刷新到文件中，以防止数据丢失！！！
  • ③ 将数据从内存存储到文件中，专业的说法是落盘（落在磁盘上）。

  • 此时，如果我们在没有保存的过程下，将记事本软件关闭，那么刚才输入的文字将丢失；下次，再打开同样的文件（将数据从磁盘加载进内存，再交给 CPU），之前输入的文字将不复存在，如下所示：

NOTE

  • ① 目前，很多软件都很智能，如果你没有保存，将提醒你是否保存或丢失刚才输入的文字。
  • ② 但是，也有很多软件提供了自动保存数据的功能，其原理就是定时（1s、3s、5s）将内存中的数据刷新到文件中，以防止数据丢失！！！
  • ③ 将数据从内存存储到文件中，专业的说法是落盘（落在磁盘上）。

IMPORTANT

内存就是软件在运行过程中，用来临时存储数据的，最为重要的两个步骤就是：

  • ① 将数据保存到内存中。
  • ② 从内存中的对应位置将数据取出来。

5.1.2 内存地址 ​

  • 在这个计算机的内存条，动不动就 32GB、64GB 、128GB 或更高的年代，如下所示：

  • 如果有一个 int （4 个字节）类型的数据 2 ，如何将这个数据保存到内存中？（对应上述的步骤 ①）

  • 就算数据 2 已经保存到内存中，那么内存中那么多的数据，我们又该如何取出呢？（对应上述的步骤 ②）

IMPORTANT

答案就是内存地址。

  • 操作系统为了更快的去管理内存中的数据，会将内存条按照字节划分为一个个的单元格，如下所示：

NOTE

计算机中存储单位的换算，如下所示：

  • 1 B = 8 bit。
  • 1 KB = 1024 B。
  • 1 MB = 1024 KB。
  • 1 GB = 1024 MB。
  • 1 TB = 1024 GB 。
  • ……
  • 为了方便管理，每个独立的小单元格，都有自己唯一的编号（内存地址），如下所示：

  • 之所以，加了内存地址，就能加快数据的存取速度，可以类比生活中的字典：

    • 如果没有使用拼音查找法或部首查找法，我们需要一页一页，一行一行的，在整个字典中去搜索我们想要了解的汉字。

    • 如果使用拼音查找法或部首查找法，我们可以很快的定位到所要了解汉字所在的页数，加快了搜索的效率。

  • 同样的道理，如果没有内存地址，我们只能一个个的去寻找想要的数据，效率非常低下，如下所示：

  • 如果使用内存地址，我们就可以直接定位到指定的数据，效率非常高，如下所示：

IMPORTANT

  • ① 内存地址是计算机中用于标识内存中某个特定位置的数值。
  • ② 每个内存单元都有一个唯一的地址，这些地址可以用于访问和操作存储在内存中的数据。
  • 实际中的内存地址，并不是像上面的 001 、002 、... 之类的数字，而是有自己的规则，即：内存地址规则。

NOTE

  • ① 32 位的操作系统中，内存地址以 32 位的二进制表示。
  • ② 64 位的操作系统中，内存地址以 64 位的二进制表示。
  • 在 32 位的操作系统中，内存地址的范围是：0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 ~ 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 （2 ^ 32 次方）。

NOTE

在 32 位的操作系统中，一共有 4,294,967,296 个内存地址，其最大支持的内存大小是 4,294,967,296 字节，即 4 GB 。

  • 在 64 位的操作系统中，内存地址的范围是：0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 ~ 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 （2 ^ 64 次方）。

NOTE

  • ① 在 64 位的操作系统中，一共有 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 个内存地址，其最大支持的内存大小是 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 字节，即 17,179 TB 。
  • ② 虽然，从理论上 64 位的操作系统支持的内存最大容量是 17,179 TB；但是，实际操作系统会有所限制，如：win11 的 64 位支持的最大内存是 128 GB ~ 6 TB，Linux 64 位支持的最大内存通常是 256 TB。
  • 在实际开发中，64 位操作系统的内存地址表现形式，如：0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0000 1111 1010 0000 0000 0010 0000 0000 0010 0000 1000，实在是太长了，我们通常转换为十六进制，以方便阅读，如：0x000010FA00200208 。

IMPORTANT

总结：

  • ① 内存地址是内存中每个单元的编号。
  • ② 内存地址的作用是操作系统用来快速管理内存空间的。
  • ③ 在 32 位操作系统上，内存地址以 32 位的二进制数字表示，最大支持的的内存是 4 GB，所以 32 位操作系统已经被淘汰。
  • ④ 在 64 位操作系统上，内存地址以 64 位的二进制数字表示，由于表示形式太长，我们通常会转为十六进制，以方便阅读。

5.2 内存中的变量 ​

  • 在 C 语言中，数据类型的种类很多，如：short、int、long、float、double、char 等。以 int 类型为例，在 32 位或 64 位操作系统中的，int 类型的变量都是占 4 个字节，当我们在代码中这么定义变量，如：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main(){
 	
@@ -720,7 +720,7 @@
 
     return 0;
 }

WARNING

在上述示例中，arr 和 &arr 的值是一样的，但是对应的含义是不同的。

  • ① arr 是数组名，在大多数情况下会转换为数组第一个元素的地址，即：arr 等价于 &arr[0]，其数据类型是 int *。
  • ② &arr是数组名的地址，即整个数组的地址，它指向数组本身，并不是数组第一个元素的地址，&arr 的数据类型是 int(*)[3]。

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

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  • 指针是 C 语言中最重要的概念之一，也是最难以理解的概念之一。
  • 指针是 C 语言的精髓，要想掌握 C 语言就需要深入地了解指针。

第一章：颇具争议的指针 ​

1.1 概述 ​

  • 目前而言，操作系统几乎都是通过 C 语言来编写和维护的；而 C 语言提供了指针的用法，其能直接操作内存地址，是个非常强大和灵活的工具；但是，需要开发者小心谨慎的使用，以确保程序的稳定性和安全性。

NOTE

之所以指针在 C 语言中颇具争议，是因为一方面其功能强大，直接操作内存地址；另一方面，又很危险，不正确的使用指针的方式，非常容易导致程序崩溃。

  • 如果没有能很好的使用指针，就会带来一系列的问题，如：

    • ① 空指针引用（Null Pointer Dereference）：当一个指针没有正确初始化或者被赋予了空（NULL）值时，如果程序尝试访问该指针所指向的内存，会导致运行时错误，甚至导致程序崩溃。
    • ② 野指针（Dangling Pointers）：指针指向的内存地址曾经分配给某个变量或对象，但后来该变量或对象被释放或者移动，导致指针仍指向已经无效的内存位置。对野指针进行操作可能会导致未定义的行为或程序崩溃。
    • ③ 指针算术错误：在进行指针运算时，如果没有正确管理指针的偏移量或者超出了数组的边界，可能会导致指针指向错误的内存位置，从而影响程序的正确性和安全性。
    • ④ 内存泄漏：如果动态分配的内存通过指针分配，但在不再需要时没有正确释放，会导致内存泄漏，长时间运行的程序可能会耗尽系统资源。

  • 为了减少指针带来的风险，开发人员可以采取以下的措施：

    • ① 良好的编程实践：确保指针的初始化和使用是安全的，避免空指针引用和野指针问题。
    • ② 边界检查：在进行指针运算时，始终确保不会超出数组或内存分配的边界。
    • ③ 使用指针和引用的适当性：在可能的情况下，可以考虑使用更安全的语言特性，如：引用（在 C++ 等编程语言中）或者更高级别的数据结构来代替裸指针，从而减少指针使用时的潜在风险。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 既然指针很危险，那么通过一系列的手段将指针包装或屏蔽，以达到程序安全的目的（这是现代化的高级编程语言解决的思路，如：Java、Go、Rust 等）。
  • ② 之所以，指针还需要学习，是因为在嵌入式等领域，其机器的资源（CPU、内存等）非常有限；而现代化的高级编程语言虽然安全，但是需要的系统资源也庞大。
  • ③ 我们知道，编译型的程序不管编译过程如何复杂，至少需要两步：编译和运行。通常，我们也将这两步称为编译期和运行期。C 语言中的指针之所以危险就在于程序要在运行的时候才会发现问题（后知后觉）；而现代化的高级编程语言中的编译器在程序编译的时候就会发现问题（提前发现问题）。
  • ④ C 语言的编译器之所以这么设计的原因，就在于当时的内存和 CPU 是非常有限（PDP-7 早期小型计算机，CPU：18 bit 的电子管逻辑，内存：4kb ）和昂贵（72,000 $），如果加入安全限制的功能，会远远超过整个系统的资源。

1.2 现代化高级编程语言是如何解决指针危险的？ ​

  • C++采用了如下的策略和机制，来解决指针危险操作的：

    • ① 智能指针： C++ 引入了智能指针（如std::shared_ptr、std::unique_ptr），这些指针提供了自动资源管理和所有权的语义。std::unique_ptr确保只有一个指针可以访问给定的资源，从而避免了传统指针的悬空引用和内存泄漏问题。std::shared_ptr允许多个指针共享一个资源，并在所有引用释放后自动释放。
    • ② 引用： C++ 中的引用（如：&符号）提供了更安全的间接访问方法，与指针相比，引用不能重新绑定到不同的对象，从而减少了意外的指针错误。

  • Go采用了如下的策略和机制，来解决指针危险操作的：

    • ① 内存管理和垃圾回收： Go 语言通过自动垃圾回收器管理内存，减少了手动内存管理所带来的指针操作错误。Go 的垃圾回收器定期扫描并释放不再使用的内存，避免了内存泄漏和悬空指针问题。
    • ② 指针的安全性： Go 语言的指针是受限的，不支持指针运算，从而减少了指针操作可能带来的风险。

  • Rust采用了如下的策略和机制，来解决指针危险操作的：

    • ① 所有权和借用： Rust 引入了所有权和借用的概念，编译器在编译时静态分析所有权转移和引用的生命周期。这种机制避免了数据竞争和空指针解引用等运行时错误，使得在编译时就能够保证内存安全。
    • ② 生命周期： Rust 的生命周期系统确保引用的有效性和安全性，防止了悬空引用和指针乱用。

  • Java采用了如下的策略和机制，来解决指针危险操作的：

    • ① 引用类型和自动内存管理： Java 中所有的对象引用都是通过引用来访问的，而不是直接的指针。Java 的自动垃圾回收器负责管理内存，从而避免了手动内存管理可能导致的指针错误，如：内存泄漏和悬空指针。
    • ② 强类型系统和异常处理： Java 的强类型系统和异常处理机制减少了指针操作带来的风险，如：空指针解引用异常（NullPointerException）。编译器在编译时能够捕获许多潜在的类型错误，进一步增强了程序的安全性和可靠性。

IMPORTANT

总而言之，各种编程语言通过引入不同的策略和机制，如：智能指针、垃圾回收器、所有权和借用，以及强类型系统，有效地减少了指针操作所带来的各种安全性和可靠性问题，提升了程序的稳定性和开发效率。

第二章：回顾知识 ​

2.1 变量 ​

  • 变量就是保存程序运行过程中临时产生的值，其语法如下：
c
数据类型 变量名 = 值 ;

IMPORTANT

变量名（标识符）需要符合命名规则和命名规范！！！

  • 强制规范：
    • ① 只能由小写或大写英文字母，0-9 或 _ 组成。
    • ② 不能以数字开头。
    • ③ 不可以是关键字。
    • ④ 标识符具有长度限制，不同编译器和平台会有所不同，一般限制在 63 个字符内。
    • ⑤ 严格区分大小写字母，如：Hello、hello 是不同的标识符。
  • 建议规范：
    • ① 为了提高阅读性，使用有意义的单词，见名知意，如：sum，name，max，year 等。
    • ② 使用下划线连接多个单词组成的标识符，如：max_classes_per_student 等。
    • ③ 多个单词组成的标识符，除了使用下划线连接，也可以使用小驼峰命名法，除第一个单词外，后续单词的首字母大写，如： studentId、student_name 等。
    • ④ 不要出现仅靠大小写区分不同的标识符，如：name、Name 容易混淆。
    • ⑤ 系统内部使用了一些下划线开头的标识符，如：C99 标准添加的类型 _Bool，为防止冲突，建议开发者尽量避免使用下划线开头的标识符。
  • 变量名的作用，如下所示：
    • ① 当我们编写代码的时候，使用变量名来关联某块内存的地址。
    • ② 当 CPU 执行的时候，会将变量名替换为具体的地址，再进行具体的操作。

2.2 普通变量和指针变量的区别 ​

  • 根据变量中存储的值的不同，我们可以将变量分为两类：
    • 普通变量：变量所对应的内存中存储的是普通值。
    • 指针变量：变量所对应的内存中存储的是另一个变量的地址。
  • 如下图所示：

img

  • 普通变量和指针变量的相同点，如下所示：
    • ① 普通变量有内存空间，指针变量也有内存空间。
    • ② 普通变量有内存地址，指针变量也有内存地址。
    • ③ 普通变量所对应的内存空间中有值，指针变量所对应的内存空间中也有值。
  • 普通变量和指针变量的不同点：
    • ① 普通变量所对应的内存空间存储的是普通的值，如：整数、小数、字符等；指针变量所对应的内存空间存储的是另外一个变量的地址。
    • ② 普通变量有普通变量的运算方式，而指针变量有指针变量的运算方式（后续讲解）。

2.3 运算符 ​

2.3.1 概述 ​

  • 运算符是一种特殊的符号，用于数据的运算、赋值和比较等。
  • 表达式指的是一组运算数、运算符的组合，表达式一定具有值，一个变量或一个常量可以是表达式，变量、常量和运算符也可以组成表达式，如：

img

  • 操作数指的是参与运算的值或者对象，如：

  • 根据操作数的个数，可以将运算符分为：
    • 一元运算符（一目运算符）。
    • 二元运算符（二目运算符）。
    • 三元运算符（三目运算符）。
  • 根据功能，可以将运算符分为：
    • 算术运算符。
    • 关系运算符（比较运算符）。
    • 逻辑运算符。
    • 赋值运算符。
    • 逻辑运算符。
    • 位运算符。
    • 三元运算符。

NOTE

掌握一个运算符，需要关注以下几个方面：

  • ① 运算符的含义。
  • ② 运算符操作数的个数。
  • ③ 运算符所组成的表达式。
  • ④ 运算符有无副作用，即：运算后是否会修改操作数的值。

IMPORTANT

普通变量支持上述的所有运算符；而指针变量并非支持上述的所有运算符，且支持运算符的含义和普通变量相差较大！！！

2.3.2 运算符的优先级 ​

  • C 语言中运算符的优先级，如下所示：
优先级运算符名称或含义结合方向
1[]数组下标➡️（从左到右）
()圆括号
.成员选择（对象）
->成员选择（指针）
2-负号运算符⬅️（从右到左）
（类型）强制类型转换
++自增运算符
--自减运算符
*取值运算符
&取地址运算符
!逻辑非运算符
~按位取反运算符
sizeof长度运算符
3/除➡️（从左到右）
*乘
%余数（取模）
4+加➡️（从左到右）
-减
5<<左移➡️（从左到右）
>>右移
6>大于➡️（从左到右）
>=大于等于
<小于
<=小于等于
7==等于➡️（从左到右）
!=不等于
8&按位与➡️（从左到右）
9^按位异或➡️（从左到右）
10|按位或➡️（从左到右）
11&&逻辑与➡️（从左到右）
12||逻辑或➡️（从左到右）
13?:条件运算符⬅️（从右到左）
14=赋值运算符⬅️（从右到左）
/=除后赋值
*=乘后赋值
%=取模后赋值
+=加后赋值
-=减后赋值
<<=左移后赋值
>>=右移后赋值
&=按位与后赋值
^=按位异或后赋值
|=按位或后赋值
15,逗号运算符➡️（从左到右）

WARNING

  • ① 不要过多的依赖运算符的优先级来控制表达式的执行顺序，这样可读性太差，尽量使用小括号来控制表达式的执行顺序。
  • ② 不要把一个表达式写得过于复杂，如果一个表达式过于复杂，则把它分成几步来完成。
  • ③ 运算符优先级不用刻意地去记忆，总体上：一元运算符 > 算术运算符 > 关系运算符 > 逻辑运算符 > 三元运算符 > 赋值运算符。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 取值运算符 * 和取地址运算符 & 的优先级相同，并且运算方向都是从右向左！！！
  • ② 逗号运算符 , 的优先级最低，并且运算方向是从左向右！！！

第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐） ​

4.1 概述 ​

4.2 普通变量和指针变量的区别 ​

在 CLion 中使用 GDB 调试时，可以通过反编译代码来查看指针变量和普通变量的区别。下面是具体的步骤：

设置 GDB 调试器 ​

  1. 打开 CLion，并加载你的项目。
  2. 确保你使用的是带有 GDB 支持的工具链（如 GCC 工具链）。
  3. 在 CLion 的设置中，确保调试器设置为 GDB。

编译你的代码 ​

确保在编译你的代码时使用了调试信息生成选项（如 -g）。你可以在 CMakeLists.txt 文件中添加以下行：

cmake
set(CMAKE_CXX_FLAGS "${CMAKE_CXX_FLAGS} -g")

开始调试 ​

  1. 设置断点：在代码中你想要查看变量的地方设置一个断点。
  2. 启动调试：点击调试按钮启动调试会话。

查看变量 ​

当调试器在断点处暂停时，你可以在调试控制台中使用 GDB 命令来查看变量。以下是一些常用的 GDB 命令：

  • print variable_name：打印变量的值。
  • info locals：打印当前作用域中的所有局部变量。
  • whatis variable_name：显示变量的类型。

区分指针变量和普通变量 ​

指针变量和普通变量的主要区别在于它们的类型和存储的内容。指针变量存储的是地址，而普通变量存储的是实际的值。通过 GDB 命令可以很容易地看到这种区别。

示例 ​

假设有如下代码：

cpp
#include <iostream>
+    
许大仙
Appearance
  • 指针是 C 语言中最重要的概念之一，也是最难以理解的概念之一。
  • 指针是 C 语言的精髓，要想掌握 C 语言就需要深入地了解指针。
第一章：颇具争议的指针 ​
1.1 概述 ​
  • 目前而言，操作系统几乎都是通过 C 语言来编写和维护的；而 C 语言提供了指针的用法，其能直接操作内存地址，是个非常强大和灵活的工具；但是，需要开发者小心谨慎的使用，以确保程序的稳定性和安全性。
NOTE
之所以指针在 C 语言中颇具争议，是因为一方面其功能强大，直接操作内存地址；另一方面，又很危险，不正确的使用指针的方式，非常容易导致程序崩溃。
  • 如果没有能很好的使用指针，就会带来一系列的问题，如：
    • ① 空指针引用（Null Pointer Dereference）：当一个指针没有正确初始化或者被赋予了空（NULL）值时，如果程序尝试访问该指针所指向的内存，会导致运行时错误，甚至导致程序崩溃。
    • ② 野指针（Dangling Pointers）：指针指向的内存地址曾经分配给某个变量或对象，但后来该变量或对象被释放或者移动，导致指针仍指向已经无效的内存位置。对野指针进行操作可能会导致未定义的行为或程序崩溃。
    • ③ 指针算术错误：在进行指针运算时，如果没有正确管理指针的偏移量或者超出了数组的边界，可能会导致指针指向错误的内存位置，从而影响程序的正确性和安全性。
    • ④ 内存泄漏：如果动态分配的内存通过指针分配，但在不再需要时没有正确释放，会导致内存泄漏，长时间运行的程序可能会耗尽系统资源。
  • 为了减少指针带来的风险，开发人员可以采取以下的措施：
    • ① 良好的编程实践：确保指针的初始化和使用是安全的，避免空指针引用和野指针问题。
    • ② 边界检查：在进行指针运算时，始终确保不会超出数组或内存分配的边界。
    • ③ 使用指针和引用的适当性：在可能的情况下，可以考虑使用更安全的语言特性，如：引用（在 C++ 等编程语言中）或者更高级别的数据结构来代替裸指针，从而减少指针使用时的潜在风险。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 既然指针很危险，那么通过一系列的手段将指针包装或屏蔽，以达到程序安全的目的（这是现代化的高级编程语言解决的思路，如：Java、Go、Rust 等）。
  • ② 之所以，指针还需要学习，是因为在嵌入式等领域，其机器的资源（CPU、内存等）非常有限；而现代化的高级编程语言虽然安全，但是需要的系统资源也庞大。
  • ③ 我们知道，编译型的程序不管编译过程如何复杂，至少需要两步：编译和运行。通常，我们也将这两步称为编译期和运行期。C 语言中的指针之所以危险就在于程序要在运行的时候才会发现问题（后知后觉）；而现代化的高级编程语言中的编译器在程序编译的时候就会发现问题（提前发现问题）。
  • ④ C 语言的编译器之所以这么设计的原因，就在于当时的内存和 CPU 是非常有限（PDP-7 早期小型计算机，CPU：18 bit 的电子管逻辑，内存：4kb ）和昂贵（72,000 $），如果加入安全限制的功能，会远远超过整个系统的资源。
1.2 现代化高级编程语言是如何解决指针危险的？ ​
  • C++采用了如下的策略和机制，来解决指针危险操作的：
    • ① 智能指针： C++ 引入了智能指针（如std::shared_ptr、std::unique_ptr），这些指针提供了自动资源管理和所有权的语义。std::unique_ptr确保只有一个指针可以访问给定的资源，从而避免了传统指针的悬空引用和内存泄漏问题。std::shared_ptr允许多个指针共享一个资源，并在所有引用释放后自动释放。
    • ② 引用： C++ 中的引用（如：&符号）提供了更安全的间接访问方法，与指针相比，引用不能重新绑定到不同的对象，从而减少了意外的指针错误。
  • Go采用了如下的策略和机制，来解决指针危险操作的：
    • ① 内存管理和垃圾回收： Go 语言通过自动垃圾回收器管理内存，减少了手动内存管理所带来的指针操作错误。Go 的垃圾回收器定期扫描并释放不再使用的内存，避免了内存泄漏和悬空指针问题。
    • ② 指针的安全性： Go 语言的指针是受限的，不支持指针运算，从而减少了指针操作可能带来的风险。
  • Rust采用了如下的策略和机制，来解决指针危险操作的：
    • ① 所有权和借用： Rust 引入了所有权和借用的概念，编译器在编译时静态分析所有权转移和引用的生命周期。这种机制避免了数据竞争和空指针解引用等运行时错误，使得在编译时就能够保证内存安全。
    • ② 生命周期： Rust 的生命周期系统确保引用的有效性和安全性，防止了悬空引用和指针乱用。
  • Java采用了如下的策略和机制，来解决指针危险操作的：
    • ① 引用类型和自动内存管理： Java 中所有的对象引用都是通过引用来访问的，而不是直接的指针。Java 的自动垃圾回收器负责管理内存，从而避免了手动内存管理可能导致的指针错误，如：内存泄漏和悬空指针。
    • ② 强类型系统和异常处理： Java 的强类型系统和异常处理机制减少了指针操作带来的风险，如：空指针解引用异常（NullPointerException）。编译器在编译时能够捕获许多潜在的类型错误，进一步增强了程序的安全性和可靠性。
IMPORTANT
总而言之，各种编程语言通过引入不同的策略和机制，如：智能指针、垃圾回收器、所有权和借用，以及强类型系统，有效地减少了指针操作所带来的各种安全性和可靠性问题，提升了程序的稳定性和开发效率。
第二章：回顾知识 ​
2.1 变量 ​
  • 变量就是保存程序运行过程中临时产生的值，其语法如下：
c
数据类型 变量名 = 值 ;
IMPORTANT
变量名（标识符）需要符合命名规则和命名规范！！！
  • 强制规范： 
    • ① 只能由小写或大写英文字母，0-9 或 _ 组成。
    • ② 不能以数字开头。
    • ③ 不可以是关键字。
    • ④ 标识符具有长度限制，不同编译器和平台会有所不同，一般限制在 63 个字符内。
    • ⑤ 严格区分大小写字母，如：Hello、hello 是不同的标识符。
  • 建议规范： 
    • ① 为了提高阅读性，使用有意义的单词，见名知意，如：sum，name，max，year 等。
    • ② 使用下划线连接多个单词组成的标识符，如：max_classes_per_student 等。
    • ③ 多个单词组成的标识符，除了使用下划线连接，也可以使用小驼峰命名法，除第一个单词外，后续单词的首字母大写，如： studentId、student_name 等。
    • ④ 不要出现仅靠大小写区分不同的标识符，如：name、Name 容易混淆。
    • ⑤ 系统内部使用了一些下划线开头的标识符，如：C99 标准添加的类型 _Bool，为防止冲突，建议开发者尽量避免使用下划线开头的标识符。
  • 变量名的作用，如下所示： 
    • ① 当我们编写代码的时候，使用变量名来关联某块内存的地址。
    • ② 当 CPU 执行的时候，会将变量名替换为具体的地址，再进行具体的操作。
2.2 普通变量和指针变量的区别 ​
  • 根据变量中存储的值的不同，我们可以将变量分为两类： 
    • 普通变量：变量所对应的内存中存储的是普通值。
    • 指针变量：变量所对应的内存中存储的是另一个变量的地址。
  • 如下图所示：
img
  • 普通变量和指针变量的相同点，如下所示： 
    • ① 普通变量有内存空间，指针变量也有内存空间。
    • ② 普通变量有内存地址，指针变量也有内存地址。
    • ③ 普通变量所对应的内存空间中有值，指针变量所对应的内存空间中也有值。
  • 普通变量和指针变量的不同点： 
    • ① 普通变量所对应的内存空间存储的是普通的值，如：整数、小数、字符等；指针变量所对应的内存空间存储的是另外一个变量的地址。
    • ② 普通变量有普通变量的运算方式，而指针变量有指针变量的运算方式（后续讲解）。
2.3 运算符 ​
2.3.1 概述 ​
  • 运算符是一种特殊的符号，用于数据的运算、赋值和比较等。
  • 表达式指的是一组运算数、运算符的组合，表达式一定具有值，一个变量或一个常量可以是表达式，变量、常量和运算符也可以组成表达式，如：
img
  • 操作数指的是参与运算的值或者对象，如：
  • 根据操作数的个数，可以将运算符分为： 
    • 一元运算符（一目运算符）。
    • 二元运算符（二目运算符）。
    • 三元运算符（三目运算符）。
  • 根据功能，可以将运算符分为： 
    • 算术运算符。
    • 关系运算符（比较运算符）。
    • 逻辑运算符。
    • 赋值运算符。
    • 逻辑运算符。
    • 位运算符。
    • 三元运算符。
NOTE
掌握一个运算符，需要关注以下几个方面：
  • ① 运算符的含义。
  • ② 运算符操作数的个数。
  • ③ 运算符所组成的表达式。
  • ④ 运算符有无副作用，即：运算后是否会修改操作数的值。
IMPORTANT
普通变量支持上述的所有运算符；而指针变量并非支持上述的所有运算符，且支持运算符的含义和普通变量相差较大！！！
2.3.2 运算符的优先级 ​
  • C 语言中运算符的优先级，如下所示：
优先级运算符名称或含义结合方向
1[]数组下标➡️（从左到右）
()圆括号
.成员选择（对象）
->成员选择（指针）
2-负号运算符⬅️（从右到左）
（类型）强制类型转换
++自增运算符
--自减运算符
*取值运算符
&取地址运算符
!逻辑非运算符
~按位取反运算符
sizeof长度运算符
3/除➡️（从左到右）
*乘
%余数（取模）
4+加➡️（从左到右）
-减
5<<左移➡️（从左到右）
>>右移
6>大于➡️（从左到右）
>=大于等于
<小于
<=小于等于
7==等于➡️（从左到右）
!=不等于
8&按位与➡️（从左到右）
9^按位异或➡️（从左到右）
10|按位或➡️（从左到右）
11&&逻辑与➡️（从左到右）
12||逻辑或➡️（从左到右）
13?:条件运算符⬅️（从右到左）
14=赋值运算符⬅️（从右到左）
/=除后赋值
*=乘后赋值
%=取模后赋值
+=加后赋值
-=减后赋值
<<=左移后赋值
>>=右移后赋值
&=按位与后赋值
^=按位异或后赋值
|=按位或后赋值
15,逗号运算符➡️（从左到右）
WARNING
  • ① 不要过多的依赖运算符的优先级来控制表达式的执行顺序，这样可读性太差，尽量使用小括号来控制表达式的执行顺序。
  • ② 不要把一个表达式写得过于复杂，如果一个表达式过于复杂，则把它分成几步来完成。
  • ③ 运算符优先级不用刻意地去记忆，总体上：一元运算符 > 算术运算符 > 关系运算符 > 逻辑运算符 > 三元运算符 > 赋值运算符。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 取值运算符 * 和取地址运算符 & 的优先级相同，并且运算方向都是从右向左！！！
  • ② 逗号运算符 , 的优先级最低，并且运算方向是从左向右！！！
第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐） ​
3.1 变量的访问方式 ​
  • 计算机中程序的运行都是在内存中进行的，变量也是内存中分配的空间，且不同类型的变量占据的空间大小不同，如：char 类型的变量是 1 个字节，short 类型的变量是 2 个字节，int 类型的变量是 4 个字节...
  • 之前我们都是通过变量名（普通变量）访问内存中存储的数据，如下所示：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+
+int main() {
+
+    // 定义变量，即：开辟一块内存空间，并将初始化值存储进去
+    int num = 10;
+
+    // 访问变量，即：访问变量在内存中对应的数据
+    printf("num = %d\n", num);
+
+    // 给变量赋值，即：给变量在内存中占据的内存空间存储数据
+    num = 100;
+
+    // 访问变量，即：访问变量在内存中对应的数据
+    printf("num = %d\n", num);
+
+    return 0;
+}
  • 上述的这种方式也称为直接访问；当然，既然有直接访问的方式，必然有间接访问的方式，如：指针。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 我们通过变量名（普通变量）访问内存中变量存储的数据，之所以称为直接访问的方式，是因为对于我们写程序而言，我们无需关心如何根据内存地址去获取变量对应的数据，以及如何根据内存地址将数据存储到对应的内存空间，这些操作步骤都是编译器帮助我们在底层完成的（自动化）。
  • ② 但是，我们也可以通过内存地址去操作内存中对应的数据（手动化），这种方式就称为间接访问的方式了，相对于直接访问方式来说，要理解的概念和操作的步骤要比之间直接访问方式要多很多，但是效率高。
3.2 内存地址和指针 ​
  • 其实，在之前《数组》中，我们就已经讲解了内存地址的概念了，即：操作系统为了更快的去管理内存中的数据，会将内存条按照字节划分为一个个的单元格，并为每个独立的小的单元格，分配唯一的编号，即：内存地址，如下所示：
NOTE
有了内存地址，就能加快数据的存取速度，可以类比生活中的字典，即：
  • ① 内存地址是计算机中用于标识内存中某个特定位置的数值。
  • ② 每个内存单元都有一个唯一的地址，这些地址可以用于访问和操作存储在内存中的数据。
  • 对于之前的代码，如下所示：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+
+int main() {
+
+    // 定义变量，即：开辟一块内存空间，并将初始化值存储进去
+    int num = 10;
+
+    return 0;
+}
  • 其在内存中，就是这样的，如下所示：
  • 虽然，之前我们在程序中都是通过变量名（普通变量）直接操作内存中的存储单元；但是，编译器底层还是会通过内存地址来找到所需要的存储单元，如下所示：
NOTE
通过内存地址找到所需要的存储单元，即：内存地址指向该存储单元。此时，就可以将内存地址形象化的描述为指针👉，那么：
  • ① 变量：命名的内存空间，用于存放各种类型的数据。
  • ② 变量名：变量名是给内存空间取一个容易记忆的名字，方便我们编写程序。
  • ③ 变量值：变量所对应的内存中的存储单元中存放的数据值。
  • ④ 变量的地址：变量所对应的内存中的存储单元的内存地址，也可以称为指针。
总结：内存地址 = 指针。
  • 普通变量所对应的内存空间存储的是普通的值，如：整数、小数、字符等；指针变量所对应的内存空间存储的是另外一个变量的地址（指针），如下所示：
NOTE
有的时候，为了方便阐述，我们会将指针变量称为指针。但是，需要记住的是：
  • 指针 = 内存地址。
  • 指针变量 = 变量中保存的是另一个变量的地址。
下文中提及的指针都是指针变量，不再阐述！！！
3.2 普通变量和指针变量的区别 ​
在 CLion 中使用 GDB 调试时，可以通过反编译代码来查看指针变量和普通变量的区别。下面是具体的步骤：
设置 GDB 调试器 ​
  1. 打开 CLion，并加载你的项目。
  2. 确保你使用的是带有 GDB 支持的工具链（如 GCC 工具链）。
  3. 在 CLion 的设置中，确保调试器设置为 GDB。
编译你的代码 ​
确保在编译你的代码时使用了调试信息生成选项（如 -g）。你可以在 CMakeLists.txt 文件中添加以下行：
cmake
set(CMAKE_CXX_FLAGS "${CMAKE_CXX_FLAGS} -g")
开始调试 ​
  1. 设置断点：在代码中你想要查看变量的地方设置一个断点。
  2. 启动调试：点击调试按钮启动调试会话。
查看变量 ​
当调试器在断点处暂停时，你可以在调试控制台中使用 GDB 命令来查看变量。以下是一些常用的 GDB 命令：
  • print variable_name：打印变量的值。
  • info locals：打印当前作用域中的所有局部变量。
  • whatis variable_name：显示变量的类型。
区分指针变量和普通变量 ​
指针变量和普通变量的主要区别在于它们的类型和存储的内容。指针变量存储的是地址，而普通变量存储的是实际的值。通过 GDB 命令可以很容易地看到这种区别。
示例 ​
假设有如下代码：
cpp
#include <iostream>
 
 int main() {
     int a = 10;
     int *p = &a;
     std::cout << "a: " << a << ", p: " << p << std::endl;
     return 0;
-}
在 CLion 中设置断点并开始调试，程序将在 std::cout 行暂停。此时在调试控制台中输入以下命令：
  • print a：输出变量 a 的值，应该是 10。
  • print p：输出指针变量 p 的值，即 a 的地址。
  • print *p：输出指针 p 指向的值，即 10。
通过这些命令，你可以看到指针变量 p 实际上存储的是一个地址，而普通变量 a 存储的是一个整数值。
使用反汇编 ​
在某些情况下，你可能需要查看反汇编代码来更深入地理解变量的存储方式。使用以下命令可以查看当前函数的反汇编代码：
  • disassemble：反汇编当前函数的代码。
  • x/4wx &a：查看变量 a 的内存内容。
总结 ​
在 CLion 中使用 GDB 调试时，通过查看变量值和反汇编代码，可以清楚地区分指针变量和普通变量。指针变量存储地址，而普通变量存储实际的值，通过适当的 GDB 命令可以轻松辨别两者的区别。
第五章：指针的运算（⭐） ​
5.1 概述 ​
5.2 总结 ​
  • 在 C 语言中，普通变量是直接存储数据的变量。对于普通变量，支持的操作包括：
    • ① 赋值操作：给变量赋值，如：int a = 5。
    • ② 算术运算：可以对数值类型的普通变量进行加、减、乘、除等运算，如：a + b、a - b、a * b、a / b
    • ③ 关系运算：可以进行比较运算（大于、小于、等于等），如： a > b、a == b。
    • ④ 逻辑运算：对布尔类型的值进行与、或、非运算，如： a && b、a || b、!a。
    • ⑤ 位运算：对整数类型的值进行位操作（与、或、异或、取反、左移、右移等），如： a & b、a | b、a ^ b、~a、a << 2、a >> 2。
    • ⑥ 自增自减运算：a++、--a 等。
  • 在 C 语言中，指针变量存储的是另一个变量的地址。对于指针变量，支持的操作包括：
    • ① 赋值操作：可以将一个地址赋值给指针，如： int *p = &a;。
    • ② 解引用操作：通过指针访问它指向的变量，如： *p = 10; 修改指向变量的值。
    • ③ 指针运算： 
      • 指针和整数值的加减运算：指针可以进行整数的加减运算，用于访问数组或结构体成员，如： p + 1。
      • 指针的自增和自减运算：指的是内存地址的向前或向后移动，如：p++、p--。
      • 指针间的相减运算：两个指向同一数组的指针相减可以得到它们之间的元素个数，如： ptr1 - ptr2。
      • 指针间的比较运算：可以比较两个指针的大小，比较的是各自内存地址的大小，如： p1 == p2、p1 != p2。
    • ④ 数组访问：指针可以用于访问数组中的元素，通过 *(p + i) 访问第 i 个元素。
    • ⑤ 指向指针的指针：可以声明指向指针的指针，即多级指针，如：int **pp = &p;。
WARNING
在使用指针时，务必小心避免野指针和内存泄漏等问题。
在C语言中，同类指针相减的结果是一个整数，它表示两个指针之间相隔多少个指向的对象单位，而不是它们在内存中的字节偏移量。这种对象单位是指针所指向的具体类型的大小。
举个例子来说，如果你有两个指向整数数组元素的指针 p 和 q，那么 p - q 的结果将是 p 指向的数组元素的索引与 q 指向的数组元素索引之间的差值。这个差值代表了在数组中相隔多少个整数元素，而不是它们在内存中的字节偏移量。
这种设计的优势在于，它使得指针运算更加直观和便于理解，特别是在处理数组和其他连续存储的数据结构时。因为指针运算结果的单位是根据指针所指向的具体类型来计算的，这样可以确保不同平台上的程序行为是一致的，不会受到底层硬件架构或者字节对齐规则的影响。
在C语言中，数组名和指针有很多相似之处，但数组名并不是指针变量。数组名实际是一个常量，它指向数组的第一个元素的地址。为了证明这一点，可以通过以下几个方面来说明：
  1. 数组名表示数组首地址： 数组名可以作为一个指针使用，数组名本身表示的是数组首地址。
    c
    int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
+}
    在 CLion 中设置断点并开始调试，程序将在 std::cout 行暂停。此时在调试控制台中输入以下命令：
    • print a：输出变量 a 的值，应该是 10。
    • print p：输出指针变量 p 的值，即 a 的地址。
    • print *p：输出指针 p 指向的值，即 10。
    通过这些命令，你可以看到指针变量 p 实际上存储的是一个地址，而普通变量 a 存储的是一个整数值。
    使用反汇编 ​
    在某些情况下，你可能需要查看反汇编代码来更深入地理解变量的存储方式。使用以下命令可以查看当前函数的反汇编代码：
    • disassemble：反汇编当前函数的代码。
    • x/4wx &a：查看变量 a 的内存内容。
    总结 ​
    在 CLion 中使用 GDB 调试时，通过查看变量值和反汇编代码，可以清楚地区分指针变量和普通变量。指针变量存储地址，而普通变量存储实际的值，通过适当的 GDB 命令可以轻松辨别两者的区别。
    第四章：指针的运算（⭐） ​
    4.1 概述 ​
    4.2 总结 ​
    • 在 C 语言中，普通变量是直接存储数据的变量。对于普通变量，支持的操作包括：
      • ① 赋值操作：给变量赋值，如：int a = 5。
      • ② 算术运算：可以对数值类型的普通变量进行加、减、乘、除等运算，如：a + b、a - b、a * b、a / b
      • ③ 关系运算：可以进行比较运算（大于、小于、等于等），如： a > b、a == b。
      • ④ 逻辑运算：对布尔类型的值进行与、或、非运算，如： a && b、a || b、!a。
      • ⑤ 位运算：对整数类型的值进行位操作（与、或、异或、取反、左移、右移等），如： a & b、a | b、a ^ b、~a、a << 2、a >> 2。
      • ⑥ 自增自减运算：a++、--a 等。
    • 在 C 语言中，指针变量存储的是另一个变量的地址。对于指针变量，支持的操作包括：
      • ① 赋值操作：可以将一个地址赋值给指针，如： int *p = &a;。
      • ② 解引用操作：通过指针访问它指向的变量，如： *p = 10; 修改指向变量的值。
      • ③ 指针运算： 
        • 指针和整数值的加减运算：指针可以进行整数的加减运算，用于访问数组或结构体成员，如： p + 1。
        • 指针的自增和自减运算：指的是内存地址的向前或向后移动，如：p++、p--。
        • 指针间的相减运算：两个指向同一数组的指针相减可以得到它们之间的元素个数，如： ptr1 - ptr2。
        • 指针间的比较运算：可以比较两个指针的大小，比较的是各自内存地址的大小，如： p1 == p2、p1 != p2。
      • ④ 数组访问：指针可以用于访问数组中的元素，通过 *(p + i) 访问第 i 个元素。
      • ⑤ 指向指针的指针：可以声明指向指针的指针，即多级指针，如：int **pp = &p;。
    WARNING
    在使用指针时，务必小心避免野指针和内存泄漏等问题。
    在C语言中，同类指针相减的结果是一个整数，它表示两个指针之间相隔多少个指向的对象单位，而不是它们在内存中的字节偏移量。这种对象单位是指针所指向的具体类型的大小。
    举个例子来说，如果你有两个指向整数数组元素的指针 p 和 q，那么 p - q 的结果将是 p 指向的数组元素的索引与 q 指向的数组元素索引之间的差值。这个差值代表了在数组中相隔多少个整数元素，而不是它们在内存中的字节偏移量。
    这种设计的优势在于，它使得指针运算更加直观和便于理解，特别是在处理数组和其他连续存储的数据结构时。因为指针运算结果的单位是根据指针所指向的具体类型来计算的，这样可以确保不同平台上的程序行为是一致的，不会受到底层硬件架构或者字节对齐规则的影响。
    在C语言中，数组名和指针有很多相似之处，但数组名并不是指针变量。数组名实际是一个常量，它指向数组的第一个元素的地址。为了证明这一点，可以通过以下几个方面来说明：
    1. 数组名表示数组首地址： 数组名可以作为一个指针使用，数组名本身表示的是数组首地址。
      c
      int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
 int *ptr = arr; // 这句话是合法的，ptr现在指向arr[0]
 printf("%p\n", arr);  // 打印数组名，会打印数组首地址
 printf("%p\n", &arr[0]);  // 打印第一个元素的地址
    2. 数组名是常量指针： 数组名是一个常量指针，不能改变它指向的位置，而指针变量可以改变它指向的位置。
      c
      int arr[5];
@@ -42,8 +67,8 @@
 int *ptr = arr;
 
 printf("Address of array: %p\n", &arr);  // 返回整个数组的地址
-printf("Address of pointer: %p\n", &ptr);  // 返回指针变量ptr的地址
    综上所述，通过这些示例和解释，可以看出数组名虽然在某些场合下可以像指针一样使用，但它并不是一个真正的指针变量，而是一个常量，表示数组的首地址。
Released under the MIT License.
Copyright © 2024 许大仙

-    
+printf("Address of pointer: %p\n", &ptr);  // 返回指针变量ptr的地址

综上所述，通过这些示例和解释，可以看出数组名虽然在某些场合下可以像指针一样使用，但它并不是一个真正的指针变量，而是一个常量，表示数组的首地址。

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

+ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/04_linux/01_xdx/index.html b/notes/04_linux/01_xdx/index.html index 8485e61..7c428c5 100644 --- a/notes/04_linux/01_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/04_linux/01_xdx/index.html @@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ - + - + @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@
许大仙

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第一章：Linux ​

1.1 Linux 概述 ​

  • Linux 是一种开源的操作系统，最初由芬兰的林纳斯·托瓦兹（Linus Torvalds）开发。它基于 UNIX 操作系统，并且具有高度的可定制性和灵活性。Linux 操作系统被广泛应用于服务器、嵌入式系统和个人计算机等领域。
  • 它具有稳定性、安全性和可靠性，并且支持多用户、多任务和多线程。Linux 拥有众多的发行版，如：Ubuntu、Red Hat、Debian 等，每个发行版都有自己的特点和优势。
  • 由于其开源性质，Linux 操作系统受到了全球开发者的广泛支持和贡献，成为了计算机行业中的重要组成部分。

1.2 Linux 的发展史 ​

  • Linux 的发展历史可以分为以下几个阶段：

    • ① 初始阶段（1991 - 1994 年）：林纳斯·托瓦兹在 1991 年发布了 Linux 内核的第一个版本，并将其开源。在接下来的几年里，Linux 逐渐吸引了一些开发者的关注和参与，开始逐步完善和扩展功能。
    • ② 发展阶段（1995 - 2000 年）：在这个阶段，Linux 开始受到更多人的关注和认可。许多开发者和公司开始为 Linux 开发应用程序和驱动程序，为其增加更多的功能和兼容性。同时，一些发行版如：Red Hat、Debian 等也开始出现，为用户提供了更方便的安装和使用方式。
    • ③ 商业化阶段（2001 - 至今）：随着 Linux 的成熟和广泛应用，越来越多的公司开始将 Linux 作为服务器和嵌入式设备的操作系统。一些大型科技公司，如：IBM、Oracle 等也开始投入大量资源支持 Linux 的发展。同时，一些商业化的 Linux 发行版，如：SUSE、Ubuntu 等也崭露头角，为企业和个人用户提供了更专业的支持和服务。
    • ④ 社区发展阶段：Linux 的发展一直依赖于全球开发者社区的贡献和支持。Linux 社区不断壮大，吸引了众多的开发者和爱好者参与其中。通过社区的力量，Linux 不断更新迭代，推出了许多新的版本和功能。

  • 总的来说，Linux 的发展历程是一个由个人项目逐渐发展为全球开源社区支持的过程。它的成功得益于开源模式的优势，以及全球开发者的共同努力和贡献。

1.3 Linux 的组成（⭐） ​

  • Linux 主要由以下几个组成部分构成：

    • ① Linux 内核：Linux 内核是整个操作系统的核心，负责管理硬件设备、内存管理、进程调度等核心功能。它是由林纳斯·托瓦兹及其他开发者编写和维护的。
    • ② Shell 解释器：Shell 解释器是用户与操作系统交互的接口，它接收用户输入的命令并将其解释执行。常见的 Shell 解释器有 Bash、Zsh 等，它们提供了命令行界面和脚本编程功能。
    • ③ 外围的应用程序：命令、应用程序、图形化界面……

  • 其图示如下：

image-20240115214505877

  • 上述的组成部分共同构成了一个完整的 Linux 操作系统，为用户提供了丰富的功能和灵活性。

1.4 Linux 发行版本（⭐） ​

  • Linux 发行版本就是：Linux 内核 + 命令解释器 + 应用程序（桌面）。
  • 主流的 Linux 发行版本如下：
Linux 系统类别Linux 系统备注
Debian 系列Debian更新频率较低，较为稳定和安全，可以用于企业生产环境。
Ubuntu桌面美观，使用方便，开发使用。有桌面版和企业版本（服务器版本）。
Redhat 系列RedHat Enterprise Linux（RHEL）红帽企业版本
CentOS基于 Red Hat Enterprise Linux（RHEL）源代码构建的免费开源操作系统。它提供了企业级的稳定性和安全性，广泛用于服务器环境。
FedoraFedora 是由 Red Hat 赞助的社区驱动的 Linux 发行版，注重最新的软件和技术。它提供了一个先进的桌面环境和开发者工具。
Rocky Linux用来替代 CentOS 系统的，也是基于 Red Hat Enterprise Linux（RHEL）源代码构建的免费开源操作系统。
Alma Linux用来替代 CentOS 系统的，也是基于 Red Hat Enterprise Linux（RHEL）源代码构建的免费开源操作系统。
其它系列SUSE、OpenSUSEOpenSUSE 是一个用户友好且功能强大的 Linux 发行版，具有稳定性和灵活性。它提供了多种桌面环境和服务器选项。
  • 当然，除了以上几个主流的 Linux 发行版，还有许多其他的发行版，如：Arch Linux、Gentoo、Mageia 等，它们各自有着不同的特点和适用场景。
  • 选择适合自己需求的发行版是根据个人或组织的需求和偏好来决定的。

1.5 Linux 版本选择（⭐） ​

  • 推荐选择 LTS 版或稳定版。

WARNING

  • LTS 是 "Long-Term Support" 的缩写，意为长期支持。在软件开发领域，LTS 通常用来描述某个版本或发行版的长期支持周期。
  • 对于 Linux 发行版或其他软件，LTS 版本通常会提供更长时间的支持和维护，以确保稳定性和安全性。这意味着在 LTS 版本的支持周期内，开发者会持续提供安全补丁、错误修复和其他重要更新，以保持系统的稳定性和可靠性。
  • LTS 版本通常适用于企业和组织等需要长期稳定性和可靠性的环境。相比于非 LTS 版本，LTS 版本的更新频率较低，更注重于提供长期支持和维护。
  • 本次选择：
系统版本说明
UbuntuLTS 18.04 、LTS 20.04 等
AlmaLinux9.1、9.2、9.3 等

第二章：工作和学习环境部署（⭐） ​

2.1 服务器 ​

  • 服务器是一种专门用于提供服务的计算机系统。它通常具有更高的性能、可靠性和稳定性，以满足处理大量请求和提供持续服务的需求。
  • 服务器的主要功能是接收来自客户端的请求，并提供相应的服务或资源。这些服务可以包括：网站托管、数据库管理、文件存储、电子邮件、应用程序运行等。服务器通过网络与客户端进行通信，处理请求并返回相应的数据或结果。
  • 服务器通常采用高性能的硬件配置，如:多核处理器、大容量内存、高速存储设备等，以确保能够处理大量的并发请求。它们还通常具有冗余的设计，包括冗余电源、冗余网络连接和冗余存储等，以提高可靠性和可用性。
  • 服务器可以是物理服务器，即实际的硬件设备，也可以是虚拟服务器，即在物理服务器上通过虚拟化技术创建的虚拟机。无论是物理服务器还是虚拟服务器，它们都扮演着提供服务和资源的角色。
  • 在企业和组织中，服务器通常由专门的 IT 团队进行管理和维护。他们负责服务器的配置、安全性、性能优化、备份和恢复等工作，以确保服务器的稳定运行和数据的安全性。

TIP

实际工作的时候，Linux 系统会运行在服务器上。

2.2 虚拟机概述 ​

  • 虚拟机（Virtual Machine，简称 VM）是一种软件实现的计算机系统，它在物理计算机上模拟出一个完整的计算环境。虚拟机可以在同一台物理计算机上同时运行多个独立的操作系统和应用程序。

2

  • 虚拟机的工作原理是通过虚拟化技术将物理计算机的硬件资源（如：处理器、内存、存储等）进行抽象和分配，为每个虚拟机提供一部分资源。每个虚拟机都被视为一个独立的计算机系统，可以运行自己的操作系统和应用程序。
  • 虚拟机的优势在于它可以提供隔离性和灵活性。通过虚拟机，可以在同一台物理计算机上同时运行多个操作系统，实现资源的共享和最大化利用。同时，虚拟机还可以提供快速部署、快速备份和恢复等功能，方便管理和维护。
  • 常见的虚拟机软件，包括：VMware、VirtualBox、KVM 等。它们提供了虚拟化平台和管理工具，使用户可以轻松创建、配置和管理虚拟机。虚拟机广泛应用于开发和测试环境、服务器虚拟化、云计算等领域。

WARNING

虚拟机软件和虚拟机的概念不同：

  • ① 虚拟机软件是用来模拟硬件一个软件，如：VMware 等。
  • ② 而虚拟机是通过虚拟机软件模拟出来的计算机硬件，其实是文件的集合，相当于一台没有安装 Windows 操作系统的裸机。
  • ③ 在现实交谈的时候，我们有时候会模糊虚拟机软件和虚拟机的概念，甚至会使用虚拟机来代替虚拟机软件；此时，就需要根据上下文环境（语境）来判断到底说的是虚拟机软件还是虚拟机了。

2.3 安装虚拟机软件 ​

2.3.1 前提条件 ​

  • 需要在 BIOS 中开启虚拟化功能。

image-20240117085245337

2.3.2 安装步骤 ​

  • ① 双击打开 VMware 安装程序 。

双击打开VMware安装程序.png

  • ② 进行下一步安装：

VMware进行下一步安装.png

  • ③ 同意许可协议，单击下一步：

VMware同意许可协议，单击下一步.png

  • ④ 根据需要决定是否需要更改软件的安装位置（建议放置于除 C 盘以外任意盘符下）：

VMware更改安装位置.png

VMware更改安装位置成功.png

  • ⑤ 更改成功后，单击确定，下一步继续安装：

VMware更改成功后，单击确定，下一步继续安装.png

  • ⑥ 用户体验设置，如下图所示，单击下一步继续安装：

VMware用户体验设置，如下图所示，单击下一步继续安装.png

  • ⑦ 快捷方式设置，单击下一步继续安装：

VMware快捷方式设置，单击下一步继续安装.png

  • ⑧ 单击安装按钮：

VMware单击安装按钮.png

  • ⑨ VMware 输入许可证：

VMware单击许可证.png

VMware输入许可证.png

  • ⑩ 安装结束后，单击完成按钮：

VMware安装结束后，单击完成按钮.png

  • ⑪ 检查虚拟机软件是否安装了虚拟网卡：

查看VMware安装的虚拟网卡.png

查看VMware安装的虚拟网卡1.png

查看VMware安装的虚拟网卡2.png

2.3.2 配置网络 ​

  • ① 打开 VMware 虚拟机软件：

image-20240116202917529

  • ② 编辑 → 虚拟网络编辑器：

image-20240116202955131

  • ③ Vmnet8 → 更改设置：

image-20240116203207282

  • ④ 更改子网 IP 地址为 ：192.168.10.0 ，其目的是为了将 IP 固定。

image-20240116203357894

  • ⑤ DHCP 设置：

image-20240116203529749

image-20240116203627959

  • ⑤ 通过 cmd ，输入 ipconfig 命令，查看是否配置成功：

2.4 创建虚拟机 ​

2.4.1 概述 ​

  • 创建虚拟机，本质上就类似购买一台没有安装操作系统的裸机。

2.4.2 创建虚拟机 ​

  • ① 文件 → 新建虚拟机：

image-20240117090352182

  • ② 选择自定义类型的配置：

image-20240117090443216

  • ③ 虚拟机硬件兼容性：下一步即可。

image-20240117090529266

  • ④ 选择稍后安装操作系统：

image-20240117090636337

  • ⑤ 选择虚拟机将安装的操作系统：

image-20240117090805295

  • ⑥ 设置虚拟机的名称和安装位置：

image-20240117090944676

WARNING

一个虚拟机一个安装目录（文件夹），防止引起文件的冲突。

  • ⑦ 虚拟机中处理器的配置：下一步即可。

image-20240117091051284

  • ⑧ 设置虚拟机的内存：至少 2048 MB以上。

image-20240117091202131

  • ⑨ 设置虚拟机的网络类型：下一步即可。

image-20240117091257738

  • ⑩ 设置 I/O 控制器类型：下一步即可。

image-20240117091402913

  • ⑪ 选择磁盘类型：下一步即可。

image-20240117091540264

  • ⑫ 选择磁盘：下一步即可。

image-20240117091640870

  • ⑬ 选择磁盘容量：调整为 40 GB。

image-20240117091832846

  • ⑭ 指定磁盘文件：下一步即可。

image-20240117091907233

  • ⑮ 创建虚拟机完毕：

image-20240117092013264

  • ⑯ 查看是否创建虚拟机成功：

image-20240117092101810

2.4.3 虚拟机归类（分类） ​

  • 实际情况下，我们可能会创建很多虚拟机，VMware 提供了文件夹的功能来管理虚拟机；其步骤如下所示：
  • ① 鼠标右键 → 创建文件夹：

image-20240117092324545

  • ② 修改文件夹的名称：

image-20240117092600931

image-20240117092643086

image-20240117092720769

  • ③ 将刚才创建的虚拟机拖到该文件夹下：

2.4.4 设置 CD/DVD ​

  • 以前，我们在一台裸机上安装操作系统的时候，需要通过 DVD 或 U 盘将操作系统的 ISO 镜像文件，安装到裸机上；
  • 同理，在使用虚拟机软件的时候，也需要此类步骤；其步骤如下：
  • ① 编辑虚拟机设置：

image-20240117093143947

  • ② 选择硬盘上的 ISO 镜像文件：

image-20240117093354461

  • ③ 查看是否配置成功：

image-20240117093435976

2.5 安装 Linux ​

  • ① 开启此虚拟机：

image-20240117093516070

  • ② 鼠标点击进去之后，通过键盘上的方向键来选择：

image-20240117093610205

  • 注意⚠️：键盘上的方向键在这里

image-20240117093918602

  • ③ 设置操作系统的语言环境为中文：

image-20240117094530342

  • ④ 设置系统安装目的地：

  • ⑤ 设置软件选择：默认即可

  • ⑥ 设置 root 的密码：123456即可

WARNING

学习阶段无所谓设置什么密码，但是生产环境，必须复杂并且经常更换！！！

  • ⑦ 配置网络和主机名：

image-20240224223931266

image-20240224224038036

image-20240224224138061

image-20240224224209724

image-20240224224245924

image-20240224224344051

  • ⑧ 查看配置网络和主机名是否成功：

image-20240224224420273

  • ⑨ 点击开始安装：漫长的等待……

  • ⑩ 安装完成之后，会提示重启系统，那就重启吧：

2.6 远程连接 Linux ​

2.6.1 查看 Linux 的 IP 地址 ​

  • 通过 ifconfig 命令来查看 Linux 的 IP 地址：
shell
ifconfig

image-20240117101543732

2.6.2 远程连接 Linux ​

  • 可以通过 xshell 之类的远程连接工具来连接 Linux ，其步骤如下：
  • ① 新建会话：

image-20240117101749340

  • ② 输入 Linux 的 IP 地址：

image-20240117101906927

  • ③ 输入用户名和密码：

image-20240117102005340

  • ④ 接收和保存远程 Linux 的密钥：

image-20240117102123845

  • ⑤ 查看是否登录成功：

image-20240117102159684

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

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