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反码","titles":["第三章：进制","3.5 原码、反码和补码"]},"163":{"title":"3.5.4 补码","titles":["第三章：进制","3.5 原码、反码和补码"]},"164":{"title":"3.5.5 总结","titles":["第三章：进制","3.5 原码、反码和补码"]},"165":{"title":"3.6 计算机底层为什么使用补码？","titles":["第三章：进制"]},"166":{"title":"第一章：数据类型（⭐）","titles":[]},"167":{"title":"1.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"168":{"title":"1.2 整数类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"169":{"title":"1.2.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"170":{"title":"1.2.2 短整型（了解）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"171":{"title":"1.2.3 整型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"172":{"title":"1.2.4 长整型（了解）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"173":{"title":"1.2.5 长长整型（了解）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"174":{"title":"1.2.6 字面量后缀","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"175":{"title":"1.2.7 精确宽度类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"176":{"title":"1.2.8 sizeof 运算符","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"177":{"title":"1.2.9 数值溢出","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"178":{"title":"1.3 浮点类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"179":{"title":"1.3.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"180":{"title":"1.3.2 格式占位符","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"181":{"title":"1.3.3 字面量后缀","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"182":{"title":"1.3.4 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"183":{"title":"1.3.5 类型的取值范围","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"184":{"title":"1.4 字符类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"185":{"title":"1.4.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"186":{"title":"1.4.2 格式占位符","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"187":{"title":"1.4.3 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"188":{"title":"1.4.4 类型的取值范围","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"189":{"title":"1.4.5 字符类型的本质","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"190":{"title":"1.5 布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"191":{"title":"1.5.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"192":{"title":"1.5.2 早期的布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"193":{"title":"1.5.3 宏定义的布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"194":{"title":"1.5.4 C99 标准中的布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"195":{"title":"1.5.5 C99 标准头文件中的布尔类型（推荐）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"196":{"title":"1.6 数据类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"197":{"title":"1.6.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换"]},"198":{"title":"1.6.2 自动类型转换（隐式转换）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换"]},"199":{"title":"1.6.2.1 运算过程中的自动类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换","1.6.2 自动类型转换（隐式转换）"]},"200":{"title":"1.6.2.2 赋值时的自动类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换","1.6.2 自动类型转换（隐式转换）"]},"201":{"title":"1.6.3 强制类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换"]},"202":{"title":"第二章：运算符（⭐）","titles":[]},"203":{"title":"2.1 概述","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"204":{"title":"2.2 算术运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"205":{"title":"2.3 关系运算符（比较运算符）","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"206":{"title":"2.4 逻辑运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"207":{"title":"2.5 赋值运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"208":{"title":"2.6 位运算符（了解）","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"209":{"title":"2.6.1 概述","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"210":{"title":"2.6.2 输出二进制位","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"211":{"title":"2.6.3 按位与","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"212":{"title":"2.6.4 按位或","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"213":{"title":"2.6.5 按位异或","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"214":{"title":"2.6.6 按位取反","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"215":{"title":"2.6.7 二进制左移","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"216":{"title":"2.6.8 二进制右移","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"217":{"title":"2.7 三元运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"218":{"title":"2.8 运算符优先级","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"219":{"title":"第三章：附录","titles":[]},"220":{"title":"3.1 字符集和字符集编码","titles":["第三章：附录"]},"221":{"title":"3.3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：附录","3.1 字符集和字符集编码"]},"222":{"title":"3.3.2 ASCII 编码","titles":["第三章：附录","3.1 字符集和字符集编码"]},"223":{"title":"3.3.3 Unicode 编码","titles":["第三章：附录","3.1 字符集和字符集编码"]},"224":{"title":"第一章：概述","titles":[]},"225":{"title":"第二章：顺序结构","titles":[]},"226":{"title":"2.1 概述","titles":["第二章：顺序结构"]},"227":{"title":"2.2 应用示例","titles":["第二章：顺序结构"]},"228":{"title":"第三章：分支结构（⭐）","titles":[]},"229":{"title":"3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"230":{"title":"3.2 单分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"231":{"title":"3.2.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"232":{"title":"3.2.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"233":{"title":"3.2.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"234":{"title":"3.3 双分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"235":{"title":"3.3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"236":{"title":"3.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"237":{"title":"3.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"238":{"title":"3.3.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"239":{"title":"3.4 多重分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"240":{"title":"3.4.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"241":{"title":"3.4.1 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"242":{"title":"3.4.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"243":{"title":"3.5 多重分支结构 switch","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"244":{"title":"3.5.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"245":{"title":"3.5.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"246":{"title":"3.5.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"247":{"title":"3.5.4 switch 和 if else if 的比较","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"248":{"title":"3.6 嵌套分支","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"249":{"title":"3.6.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.6 嵌套分支"]},"250":{"title":"3.6.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.6 嵌套分支"]},"251":{"title":"第四章：随机数","titles":[]},"252":{"title":"4.1 概述","titles":["第四章：随机数"]},"253":{"title":"4.2 C 语言中随机数的产生","titles":["第四章：随机数"]},"254":{"title":"第五章：循环结构（⭐）","titles":[]},"255":{"title":"5.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"256":{"title":"5.2 for 循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"257":{"title":"5.2.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"258":{"title":"5.2.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"259":{"title":"5.2.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"260":{"title":"5.2.4 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"261":{"title":"5.2.5 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"262":{"title":"5.2.6 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"263":{"title":"5.3 while 循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"264":{"title":"5.3.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"265":{"title":"5.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"266":{"title":"5.3.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"267":{"title":"5.3.4 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"268":{"title":"5.3.5 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"269":{"title":"5.3.6 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"270":{"title":"5.4 do-while 循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"271":{"title":"5.4.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"272":{"title":"5.4.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"273":{"title":"5.4.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"274":{"title":"5.5 嵌套循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"275":{"title":"5.5.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"276":{"title":"5.5.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"277":{"title":"5.5.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"278":{"title":"5.5.4 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"279":{"title":"5.5.5 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"280":{"title":"5.6 无限循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"281":{"title":"5.7 跳转控制语句","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"282":{"title":"5.7.1 break","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"283":{"title":"5.7.2 continue","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"284":{"title":"5.7.3 return","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"285":{"title":"第一章：数组的概念","titles":[]},"286":{"title":"1.1 为什么需要数组？","titles":["第一章：数组的概念"]},"287":{"title":"1.1.1 需求分析 1","titles":["第一章：数组的概念","1.1 为什么需要数组？"]},"288":{"title":"1.1.2 需求分析 2","titles":["第一章：数组的概念","1.1 为什么需要数组？"]},"289":{"title":"1.1.3 容器的概念","titles":["第一章：数组的概念","1.1 为什么需要数组？"]},"290":{"title":"1.2 什么是数组？","titles":["第一章：数组的概念"]},"291":{"title":"1.3 数组的相关概念","titles":["第一章：数组的概念"]},"292":{"title":"1.4 数组的特点","titles":["第一章：数组的概念"]},"293":{"title":"第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","titles":[]},"294":{"title":"2.1 数组的定义","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"295":{"title":"2.1.1 动态初始化","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.1 数组的定义"]},"296":{"title":"2.1.2 静态初始化 1","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.1 数组的定义"]},"297":{"title":"2.1.3 静态初始化 2","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.1 数组的定义"]},"298":{"title":"2.2 访问数组元素","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"299":{"title":"2.3 数组越界","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"300":{"title":"2.4 计算数组的长度","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"301":{"title":"2.5 遍历数组","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"302":{"title":"2.6 一维数组的内存分析","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"303":{"title":"2.6.1 数组内存图","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.6 一维数组的内存分析"]},"304":{"title":"2.6.2 数组的注意事项","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.6 一维数组的内存分析"]},"305":{"title":"2.7 数组应用案例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"306":{"title":"2.7.1 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"307":{"title":"2.7.2 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"308":{"title":"2.7.3 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"309":{"title":"2.7.4 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"310":{"title":"2.7.5 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"311":{"title":"2.7.6 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"312":{"title":"2.7.7 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"313":{"title":"第三章：多维数组（⭐）","titles":[]},"314":{"title":"3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"315":{"title":"3.1.1 引入","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.1 概述"]},"316":{"title":"3.1.2 多维数组","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.1 概述"]},"317":{"title":"3.2 二维数组的定义","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"318":{"title":"3.2.1 动态初始化","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.2 二维数组的定义"]},"319":{"title":"3.2.2 静态初始化 1","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.2 二维数组的定义"]},"320":{"title":"3.2.3 静态初始化 2","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.2 二维数组的定义"]},"321":{"title":"3.3 二维数组的理解","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"322":{"title":"3.4 二维数组的遍历","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"323":{"title":"3.5 二维数组的内存分析","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"324":{"title":"3.6 二维数组的应用案例","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"325":{"title":"第四章：字符串（⭐）","titles":[]},"326":{"title":"4.1 概述","titles":["第四章：字符串（⭐）"]},"327":{"title":"4.2 字符数组（字符串）的定义","titles":["第四章：字符串（⭐）"]},"328":{"title":"4.2.1 标准写法","titles":["第四章：字符串（⭐）","4.2 字符数组（字符串）的定义"]},"329":{"title":"4.2.2 简化写法（推荐）","titles":["第四章：字符串（⭐）","4.2 字符数组（字符串）的定义"]},"330":{"title":"4.3 字符串的输入和输出","titles":["第四章：字符串（⭐）"]},"331":{"title":"第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐）","titles":[]},"332":{"title":"5.1 内存和内存地址","titles":["第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐）"]},"333":{"title":"5.1.1 内存","titles":["第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐）","5.1 内存和内存地址"]},"334":{"title":"5.1.2 内存地址","titles":["第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐）","5.1 内存和内存地址"]},"335":{"title":"5.2 内存中的变量","titles":["第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐）"]},"336":{"title":"5.3 内存中的数组","titles":["第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐）"]},"337":{"title":"第一章：颇具争议的指针","titles":[]},"338":{"title":"1.1 概述","titles":["第一章：颇具争议的指针"]},"339":{"title":"1.2 现代化高级编程语言是如何解决指针危险的？","titles":["第一章：颇具争议的指针"]},"340":{"title":"第二章：回顾知识","titles":[]},"341":{"title":"2.1 变量","titles":["第二章：回顾知识"]},"342":{"title":"2.2 普通变量和指针变量的区别","titles":["第二章：回顾知识"]},"343":{"title":"2.3 运算符","titles":["第二章：回顾知识"]},"344":{"title":"2.3.1 概述","titles":["第二章：回顾知识","2.3 运算符"]},"345":{"title":"2.3.2 运算符的优先级","titles":["第二章：回顾知识","2.3 运算符"]},"346":{"title":"第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐）","titles":[]},"347":{"title":"3.1 变量的访问方式","titles":["第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐）"]},"348":{"title":"3.2 内存地址和指针","titles":["第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐）"]},"349":{"title":"3.3 指针变量的定义","titles":["第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐）"]},"350":{"title":"3.4 指针的作用","titles":["第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐）"]},"351":{"title":"向上类型转换（Upcasting）","titles":["第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐）","3.4 指针的作用"]},"352":{"title":"向下类型转换（Downcasting）","titles":["第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐）","3.4 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反码","titles":["第三章：进制","3.5 原码、反码和补码"]},"163":{"title":"3.5.4 补码","titles":["第三章：进制","3.5 原码、反码和补码"]},"164":{"title":"3.5.5 总结","titles":["第三章：进制","3.5 原码、反码和补码"]},"165":{"title":"3.6 计算机底层为什么使用补码？","titles":["第三章：进制"]},"166":{"title":"第一章：数据类型（⭐）","titles":[]},"167":{"title":"1.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"168":{"title":"1.2 整数类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"169":{"title":"1.2.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"170":{"title":"1.2.2 短整型（了解）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"171":{"title":"1.2.3 整型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"172":{"title":"1.2.4 长整型（了解）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"173":{"title":"1.2.5 长长整型（了解）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"174":{"title":"1.2.6 字面量后缀","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"175":{"title":"1.2.7 精确宽度类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"176":{"title":"1.2.8 sizeof 运算符","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"177":{"title":"1.2.9 数值溢出","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.2 整数类型"]},"178":{"title":"1.3 浮点类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"179":{"title":"1.3.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"180":{"title":"1.3.2 格式占位符","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"181":{"title":"1.3.3 字面量后缀","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"182":{"title":"1.3.4 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"183":{"title":"1.3.5 类型的取值范围","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 浮点类型"]},"184":{"title":"1.4 字符类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"185":{"title":"1.4.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"186":{"title":"1.4.2 格式占位符","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"187":{"title":"1.4.3 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"188":{"title":"1.4.4 类型的取值范围","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"189":{"title":"1.4.5 字符类型的本质","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 字符类型"]},"190":{"title":"1.5 布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"191":{"title":"1.5.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"192":{"title":"1.5.2 早期的布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"193":{"title":"1.5.3 宏定义的布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"194":{"title":"1.5.4 C99 标准中的布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"195":{"title":"1.5.5 C99 标准头文件中的布尔类型（推荐）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 布尔类型"]},"196":{"title":"1.6 数据类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"197":{"title":"1.6.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换"]},"198":{"title":"1.6.2 自动类型转换（隐式转换）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换"]},"199":{"title":"1.6.2.1 运算过程中的自动类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换","1.6.2 自动类型转换（隐式转换）"]},"200":{"title":"1.6.2.2 赋值时的自动类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换","1.6.2 自动类型转换（隐式转换）"]},"201":{"title":"1.6.3 强制类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 数据类型转换"]},"202":{"title":"第二章：运算符（⭐）","titles":[]},"203":{"title":"2.1 概述","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"204":{"title":"2.2 算术运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"205":{"title":"2.3 关系运算符（比较运算符）","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"206":{"title":"2.4 逻辑运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"207":{"title":"2.5 赋值运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"208":{"title":"2.6 位运算符（了解）","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"209":{"title":"2.6.1 概述","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"210":{"title":"2.6.2 输出二进制位","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"211":{"title":"2.6.3 按位与","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"212":{"title":"2.6.4 按位或","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"213":{"title":"2.6.5 按位异或","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"214":{"title":"2.6.6 按位取反","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"215":{"title":"2.6.7 二进制左移","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"216":{"title":"2.6.8 二进制右移","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"217":{"title":"2.7 三元运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"218":{"title":"2.8 运算符优先级","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"219":{"title":"第三章：附录","titles":[]},"220":{"title":"3.1 字符集和字符集编码","titles":["第三章：附录"]},"221":{"title":"3.3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：附录","3.1 字符集和字符集编码"]},"222":{"title":"3.3.2 ASCII 编码","titles":["第三章：附录","3.1 字符集和字符集编码"]},"223":{"title":"3.3.3 Unicode 编码","titles":["第三章：附录","3.1 字符集和字符集编码"]},"224":{"title":"第一章：概述","titles":[]},"225":{"title":"第二章：顺序结构","titles":[]},"226":{"title":"2.1 概述","titles":["第二章：顺序结构"]},"227":{"title":"2.2 应用示例","titles":["第二章：顺序结构"]},"228":{"title":"第三章：分支结构（⭐）","titles":[]},"229":{"title":"3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"230":{"title":"3.2 单分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"231":{"title":"3.2.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"232":{"title":"3.2.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"233":{"title":"3.2.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"234":{"title":"3.3 双分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"235":{"title":"3.3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"236":{"title":"3.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"237":{"title":"3.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"238":{"title":"3.3.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"239":{"title":"3.4 多重分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"240":{"title":"3.4.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"241":{"title":"3.4.1 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"242":{"title":"3.4.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"243":{"title":"3.5 多重分支结构 switch","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"244":{"title":"3.5.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"245":{"title":"3.5.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"246":{"title":"3.5.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"247":{"title":"3.5.4 switch 和 if else if 的比较","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"248":{"title":"3.6 嵌套分支","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"249":{"title":"3.6.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.6 嵌套分支"]},"250":{"title":"3.6.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.6 嵌套分支"]},"251":{"title":"第四章：随机数","titles":[]},"252":{"title":"4.1 概述","titles":["第四章：随机数"]},"253":{"title":"4.2 C 语言中随机数的产生","titles":["第四章：随机数"]},"254":{"title":"第五章：循环结构（⭐）","titles":[]},"255":{"title":"5.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"256":{"title":"5.2 for 循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"257":{"title":"5.2.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"258":{"title":"5.2.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"259":{"title":"5.2.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"260":{"title":"5.2.4 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"261":{"title":"5.2.5 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"262":{"title":"5.2.6 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"263":{"title":"5.3 while 循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"264":{"title":"5.3.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"265":{"title":"5.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"266":{"title":"5.3.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"267":{"title":"5.3.4 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"268":{"title":"5.3.5 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"269":{"title":"5.3.6 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"270":{"title":"5.4 do-while 循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"271":{"title":"5.4.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"272":{"title":"5.4.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"273":{"title":"5.4.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"274":{"title":"5.5 嵌套循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"275":{"title":"5.5.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"276":{"title":"5.5.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"277":{"title":"5.5.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"278":{"title":"5.5.4 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"279":{"title":"5.5.5 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"280":{"title":"5.6 无限循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"281":{"title":"5.7 跳转控制语句","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"282":{"title":"5.7.1 break","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"283":{"title":"5.7.2 continue","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"284":{"title":"5.7.3 return","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"285":{"title":"第一章：数组的概念","titles":[]},"286":{"title":"1.1 为什么需要数组？","titles":["第一章：数组的概念"]},"287":{"title":"1.1.1 需求分析 1","titles":["第一章：数组的概念","1.1 为什么需要数组？"]},"288":{"title":"1.1.2 需求分析 2","titles":["第一章：数组的概念","1.1 为什么需要数组？"]},"289":{"title":"1.1.3 容器的概念","titles":["第一章：数组的概念","1.1 为什么需要数组？"]},"290":{"title":"1.2 什么是数组？","titles":["第一章：数组的概念"]},"291":{"title":"1.3 数组的相关概念","titles":["第一章：数组的概念"]},"292":{"title":"1.4 数组的特点","titles":["第一章：数组的概念"]},"293":{"title":"第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","titles":[]},"294":{"title":"2.1 数组的定义","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"295":{"title":"2.1.1 动态初始化","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.1 数组的定义"]},"296":{"title":"2.1.2 静态初始化 1","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.1 数组的定义"]},"297":{"title":"2.1.3 静态初始化 2","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.1 数组的定义"]},"298":{"title":"2.2 访问数组元素","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"299":{"title":"2.3 数组越界","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"300":{"title":"2.4 计算数组的长度","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"301":{"title":"2.5 遍历数组","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"302":{"title":"2.6 一维数组的内存分析","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"303":{"title":"2.6.1 数组内存图","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.6 一维数组的内存分析"]},"304":{"title":"2.6.2 数组的注意事项","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.6 一维数组的内存分析"]},"305":{"title":"2.7 数组应用案例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"306":{"title":"2.7.1 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"307":{"title":"2.7.2 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"308":{"title":"2.7.3 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"309":{"title":"2.7.4 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"310":{"title":"2.7.5 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"311":{"title":"2.7.6 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"312":{"title":"2.7.7 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"313":{"title":"第三章：多维数组（⭐）","titles":[]},"314":{"title":"3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"315":{"title":"3.1.1 引入","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.1 概述"]},"316":{"title":"3.1.2 多维数组","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.1 概述"]},"317":{"title":"3.2 二维数组的定义","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"318":{"title":"3.2.1 动态初始化","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.2 二维数组的定义"]},"319":{"title":"3.2.2 静态初始化 1","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.2 二维数组的定义"]},"320":{"title":"3.2.3 静态初始化 2","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.2 二维数组的定义"]},"321":{"title":"3.3 二维数组的理解","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"322":{"title":"3.4 二维数组的遍历","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"323":{"title":"3.5 二维数组的内存分析","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"324":{"title":"3.6 二维数组的应用案例","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"325":{"title":"第四章：字符串（⭐）","titles":[]},"326":{"title":"4.1 概述","titles":["第四章：字符串（⭐）"]},"327":{"title":"4.2 字符数组（字符串）的定义","titles":["第四章：字符串（⭐）"]},"328":{"title":"4.2.1 标准写法","titles":["第四章：字符串（⭐）","4.2 字符数组（字符串）的定义"]},"329":{"title":"4.2.2 简化写法（推荐）","titles":["第四章：字符串（⭐）","4.2 字符数组（字符串）的定义"]},"330":{"title":"4.3 字符串的输入和输出","titles":["第四章：字符串（⭐）"]},"331":{"title":"第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐）","titles":[]},"332":{"title":"5.1 内存和内存地址","titles":["第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐）"]},"333":{"title":"5.1.1 内存","titles":["第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐）","5.1 内存和内存地址"]},"334":{"title":"5.1.2 内存地址","titles":["第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐）","5.1 内存和内存地址"]},"335":{"title":"5.2 内存中的变量","titles":["第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐）"]},"336":{"title":"5.3 内存中的数组","titles":["第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐）"]},"337":{"title":"第一章：颇具争议的指针","titles":[]},"338":{"title":"1.1 概述","titles":["第一章：颇具争议的指针"]},"339":{"title":"1.2 现代化高级编程语言是如何解决指针危险的？","titles":["第一章：颇具争议的指针"]},"340":{"title":"第二章：回顾知识","titles":[]},"341":{"title":"2.1 变量","titles":["第二章：回顾知识"]},"342":{"title":"2.2 普通变量和指针变量的区别","titles":["第二章：回顾知识"]},"343":{"title":"2.3 运算符","titles":["第二章：回顾知识"]},"344":{"title":"2.3.1 概述","titles":["第二章：回顾知识","2.3 运算符"]},"345":{"title":"2.3.2 运算符的优先级","titles":["第二章：回顾知识","2.3 运算符"]},"346":{"title":"第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐）","titles":[]},"347":{"title":"3.1 变量的访问方式","titles":["第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐）"]},"348":{"title":"3.2 内存地址和指针","titles":["第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐）"]},"349":{"title":"3.3 指针变量的定义","titles":["第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐）"]},"350":{"title":"3.4 指针的作用","titles":["第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐）"]},"351":{"title":"向上类型转换（Upcasting）","titles":["第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐）","3.4 指针的作用"]},"352":{"title":"向下类型转换（Downcasting）","titles":["第三章：指针的理解和定义（⭐）","3.4 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第一章：计算机组成原理 ​

1.1 计算机系统 ​

  • 计算机（Computer），俗称"电脑"，是一种能够接收和存储信息，并按照存储在其内部的程序对海量的数据进行自动、高速的处理，然后将处理结果输出的现代化智能电子设备。
  • 计算机有很多形式，如：台式电脑、笔记本电脑、智能手机、平板电脑等，还有生产环境中提供重要业务支撑的各种服务器。

  • 一个完整的计算机系统由硬件（Hardware）系统和软件（Software）系统两大部分组成，即：

1.2 冯·诺依曼体系结构 ​

  • 冯·诺依曼是一位多才多艺的科学家，他在数学、物理学、计算机科学、经济学等领域都有杰出的贡献。

  • 冯·诺依曼的主要成就：
    • 在计算机科学领域的最著名贡献是提出了冯·诺依曼体系结构（1946 年），这是现代计算机设计的基础。
    • 促进了计算机的可编程性和通用性，使得计算机能够执行各种复杂的任务。
    • 对核武器设计、自动化控制系统、人工智能等领域的发展产生了重要影响。
    • ……

IMPORTANT

冯·诺依曼体系结构是现代计算机（量子计算机除外）设计的基础。

  • 冯·诺依曼体系结构的理论要点如下：

    • ① 存储程序：程序指令和数据都存储在计算机的内存中，这使得程序可以在运行时修改。

    • ② 二进制逻辑：所有数据和指令都以二进制形式表示。

    • ③ 顺序执行：指令按照它们在内存中的顺序执行，但可以有条件地改变执行顺序。

    • ④ 五大部件：计算机由运算器、控制器、存储器、输入设备和输出设备组成。

    • ⑤ 指令结构：指令由操作码和地址码组成，操作码指示要执行的操作，地址码指示操作数的位置。

    • ⑥ 中心化控制：计算机的控制单元（CPU）负责解释和执行指令，控制数据流。

NOTE

上述的组件协同工作，构成了一个完整的计算机系统：

  • 运算器和控制器通常被集成在一起，组成中央处理器（CPU），负责数据处理和指令执行。
  • 存储器保存数据和程序，是计算机运作的基础。
  • 输入设备和输出设备负责与外界的交互，确保用户能够输入信息并接收计算机的处理结果。

1.3 各种硬件处理速度和性能优化 ​

  • 计算机的性能短板：如果 CPU 有每秒处理 1000 个服务请求的能力，各种总线的负载能力能达到 500 个， 但网卡只能接受 200个请求，而硬盘只能负担 150 个的话，那这台服务器得处理能力只能是 150 个请求/ 秒，有 85% 的处理器计算能力浪费了，在计算机系统当中，硬盘的读写速率已经成为影响系统性能进一 步提高的瓶颈。

img

  • 计算机的各个设备部件的延迟从高到低的排列，依次是机械硬盘（HDD）、固态硬盘（SSD）、内存、CPU 。

img

  • 从上图中，我们可以知道，CPU 是最快的，一个时钟周期是 0.3 ns ，内存访问需要 120 ns ，固态硬盘访问需要 50-150 us，传统的硬盘访问需要 1-10 ms，而网络访问是最慢，需要 40 ms 以上。
  • 时间的单位换算如下：
txt
1 秒 = 1000 毫秒，即 1 s = 1000 ms。
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第一章：计算机组成原理 ​
1.1 计算机系统 ​
  • 计算机（Computer），俗称"电脑"，是一种能够接收和存储信息，并按照存储在其内部的程序对海量的数据进行自动、高速的处理，然后将处理结果输出的现代化智能电子设备。
  • 计算机有很多形式，如：台式电脑、笔记本电脑、智能手机、平板电脑等，还有生产环境中提供重要业务支撑的各种服务器。
  • 一个完整的计算机系统由硬件（Hardware）系统和软件（Software）系统两大部分组成，即：
1.2 冯·诺依曼体系结构 ​
  • 冯·诺依曼是一位多才多艺的科学家，他在数学、物理学、计算机科学、经济学等领域都有杰出的贡献。
  • 冯·诺依曼的主要成就： 
    • 在计算机科学领域的最著名贡献是提出了冯·诺依曼体系结构（1946 年），这是现代计算机设计的基础。
    • 促进了计算机的可编程性和通用性，使得计算机能够执行各种复杂的任务。
    • 对核武器设计、自动化控制系统、人工智能等领域的发展产生了重要影响。
    • ……
IMPORTANT
冯·诺依曼体系结构是现代计算机（量子计算机除外）设计的基础。
  • 冯·诺依曼体系结构的理论要点如下：
    • ① 存储程序：程序指令和数据都存储在计算机的内存中，这使得程序可以在运行时修改。
    • ② 二进制逻辑：所有数据和指令都以二进制形式表示。
    • ③ 顺序执行：指令按照它们在内存中的顺序执行，但可以有条件地改变执行顺序。
    • ④ 五大部件：计算机由运算器、控制器、存储器、输入设备和输出设备组成。
    • ⑤ 指令结构：指令由操作码和地址码组成，操作码指示要执行的操作，地址码指示操作数的位置。
    • ⑥ 中心化控制：计算机的控制单元（CPU）负责解释和执行指令，控制数据流。
NOTE
上述的组件协同工作，构成了一个完整的计算机系统：
  • 运算器和控制器通常被集成在一起，组成中央处理器（CPU），负责数据处理和指令执行。
  • 存储器保存数据和程序，是计算机运作的基础。
  • 输入设备和输出设备负责与外界的交互，确保用户能够输入信息并接收计算机的处理结果。
1.3 各种硬件处理速度和性能优化 ​
  • 计算机的性能短板：如果 CPU 有每秒处理 1000 个服务请求的能力，各种总线的负载能力能达到 500 个， 但网卡只能接受 200个请求，而硬盘只能负担 150 个的话，那这台服务器得处理能力只能是 150 个请求/ 秒，有 85% 的处理器计算能力浪费了，在计算机系统当中，硬盘的读写速率已经成为影响系统性能进一 步提高的瓶颈。
img
  • 计算机的各个设备部件的延迟从高到低的排列，依次是机械硬盘（HDD）、固态硬盘（SSD）、内存、CPU 。
img
  • 从上图中，我们可以知道，CPU 是最快的，一个时钟周期是 0.3 ns ，内存访问需要 120 ns ，固态硬盘访问需要 50-150 us，传统的硬盘访问需要 1-10 ms，而网络访问是最慢，需要 40 ms 以上。
  • 时间的单位换算如下：
txt
1 秒 = 1000 毫秒，即 1 s = 1000 ms。
 1 毫秒 = 1000 微妙，即 1 ms = 1000 us 。
 1 微妙 = 1000 纳秒，即 1 us = 1000 ns。
  • 按照上图，将计算机世界的时间和人类世界的时间进行对比，即：
txt
如果 CPU 的时钟周期按照 1 秒计算，
 那么，内存访问就需要 6 分钟；
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ import{_ as i,c as s,o as l,a6 as a}from"./chunks/framework.CZRoMP2i.js";const e
 那么，网络访问就需要 4 年以上。
  • 所以，对于 CPU 来说，这个世界真的是太慢了！！！
  • 其实，中国古代中的文人，通常以蜉蝣来表示时间的短暂（和其他生物的寿命比），也是类似的道理，即：
txt
鹤寿千岁，以极其游，蜉蝣朝生而暮死，尽其乐，盖其旦暮为期，远不过三日尔。
 	                                        --- 出自 西汉淮南王刘安《淮南子》
txt
寄蜉蝣于天地，渺沧海之一粟。 哀吾生之须臾，羡长江之无穷。 
 挟飞仙以遨游，抱明月而长终。 知不可乎骤得，托遗响于悲风。
-	                                        --- 出自 苏轼《赤壁赋》
NOTE
对于蜉蝣来说，从早到晚就是一生；而对于我们人类而言，却仅仅只是一天。
  • 存储器的层次结构（CPU 中也有存储器，即：寄存器、高速缓存 L1、L2 和 L3），如下所示：
img
NOTE
上图以层次化的方式，展示了价格信息，揭示了一个真理，即：鱼和熊掌不可兼得。
  • ① 存储器越往上速度越快，但是价格越来越贵， 越往下速度越慢，但是价格越来越便宜。
  • ② 正是由于计算机各个部件的速度不同，容量不同，价格不同，导致了计算机系统/编程中的各种问题以及相应的解决方案。
总结：CPU 都是直接和内存打交道的，即：CPU 会直接从内存中读取数据，待数据处理完毕之后，会将结果再次写入到内存中；如果需要将数据持久化（永久）保存（内存是易失性存储器，内存中的数据是以电荷形式存储在存储单元中的。当计算机关闭或断电时，这些电荷很快消散，导致存储在内存中的数据丢失），那么就需要将内存中的数据再刷新到磁盘或硬盘上，即：落盘。
1.4 计算机软件 ​
1.4.1 操作系统的来源 ​
  • 在上古时期，硬件资源不够丰富，计算机设计的也非常简陋。那个时候，很多应用程序都是直接跑在硬件上的，即：一个计算机只能跑一个应用程序。
  • 随着技术的发展，硬件越来越丰富，功能也越来越强大，性能也越来越好。这种情况下，如果一台计算机只能跑一个程序，实在是太浪费了。而且，底层硬件不断丰富，应用程序需要对接的硬件也将越来越多，如果每个应用程序都这么干，不显示工作很重复吗？于是，操作系统应运而生了。
  • 操作系统的功能： 
    • 硬件驱动。
    • 进程管理。
    • 内存管理。
    • 网络管理。
    • 安全管理。
    • 文件管理。
  • 那么，操作系统的作用，就是这样的，即： 
    • 对下，管理计算机的硬件资源。
    • 对上，提供使用计算机资源的操作方式，有： 
      • 系统调用：是一套已经写好的代码接口，应用程序通过调用这些接口来请求操作系统执行特定的硬件操作。它们直接与硬件交互，提供底层功能支持，如：文件操作、进程管理、内存管理等。开发者通过系统调用可以实现对底层资源的直接控制，确保程序能够高效、安全地运行。
      • 终端命令：是一种文本命令接口，通过命令行输入各种指令来控制操作系统和软件的行为。终端命令可以执行文件操作、系统配置、网络管理等各种任务。主要针对开发人员和高级用户，他们通过命令行可以快速、精确地完成各种操作，提高工作效率。
      • 图形用户界面（GUI）是通过图形元素（如：窗口、图标、按钮等）与用户进行交互的界面。供直观、易用的操作方式，使用户能够通过鼠标点击、拖拽等简单操作完成复杂任务。主要面向普通用户，降低了计算机操作的门槛，提高了用户体验和工作效率。
1.4.2 用户态和内核态 ​
  • 在现代操作系统中，用户态（User Mode）和内核态（Kernel Mode）是两种不同的执行模式，它们对系统资源的访问权限有着本质的区别。这种区分是为了提供一个稳定和安全的运行环境，防止用户程序直接操作硬件设备和关键的系统资源，从而可能引起系统的不稳定或安全问题。
  • 核态（Kernel Mode） VS 用户态（User Mode）：
类型内核态（Kernel Mode）用户态（User Mode）
权限内核态是操作系统代码运行的模式，拥有访问系统全部资源和执行硬件操作的最高权限。在这种模式下，操作系统的核心部分可以直接访问内存、硬件设备控制、管理文件系统和网络通信等。用户态是普通应用程序运行的模式，具有较低的系统资源访问权限。在用户态，程序不能直接执行硬件操作，必须通过操作系统提供的接口（即系统调用）来请求服务。
安全性由于内核态具有如此高的权限，因此只有可信的、经过严格审查的操作系统核心组件才被允许在此模式下运行。这样可以保护系统不被恶意软件破坏。用户态为系统提供了一层保护，确保用户程序不能直接访问关键的系统资源，防止系统崩溃和数据泄露。
功能内核态提供了系统调用的接口，允许用户态程序安全地请求使用操作系统提供的服务，比如：文件操作、网络通信、内存管理等。用户态保证了操作系统的稳定性和安全性，同时也使得多个程序可以在相互隔离的环境中同时运行，避免相互干扰。
NOTE
  • ① 操作系统通过用户态和内核态的分离，实现了对系统资源的保护和控制。
  • ② 当用户程序需要进行文件读写、网络通信或其他需要操作系统介入的操作时，会发生从用户态到内核态的切换。这通过系统调用（System Call）实现，系统调用是用户程序与操作系统内核通信的桥梁。
  • ③ 执行完毕后，系统从内核态返回用户态，继续执行用户程序。
  • ④ 用户态和内核态的这种分离设计是现代操作系统中实现安全、稳定运行的关键机制之一。
  • 示例：
java
import java.io.IOException;
+	                                        --- 出自 苏轼《赤壁赋》
NOTE
对于蜉蝣来说，从早到晚就是一生；而对于我们人类而言，却仅仅只是一天。
  • 存储器的层次结构（CPU 中也有存储器，即：寄存器、高速缓存 L1、L2 和 L3），如下所示：
img
NOTE
上图以层次化的方式，展示了价格信息，揭示了一个真理，即：鱼和熊掌不可兼得。
  • ① 存储器越往上速度越快，但是价格越来越贵， 越往下速度越慢，但是价格越来越便宜。
  • ② 正是由于计算机各个部件的速度不同，容量不同，价格不同，导致了计算机系统/编程中的各种问题以及相应的解决方案。
IMPORTANT
总结：CPU 都是直接和内存打交道的，即：CPU 会直接从内存中读取数据，待数据处理完毕之后，会将结果再次写入到内存中；如果需要将数据持久化（永久）保存（内存是易失性存储器，内存中的数据是以电荷形式存储在存储单元中的。当计算机关闭或断电时，这些电荷很快消散，导致存储在内存中的数据丢失），那么就需要将内存中的数据再刷新到磁盘或硬盘上，即：落盘。
1.4 计算机软件 ​
1.4.1 操作系统的来源 ​
  • 在上古时期，硬件资源不够丰富，计算机设计的也非常简陋。那个时候，很多应用程序都是直接跑在硬件上的，即：一个计算机只能跑一个应用程序。
  • 随着技术的发展，硬件越来越丰富，功能也越来越强大，性能也越来越好。这种情况下，如果一台计算机只能跑一个程序，实在是太浪费了。而且，底层硬件不断丰富，应用程序需要对接的硬件也将越来越多，如果每个应用程序都这么干，不显示工作很重复吗？于是，操作系统应运而生了。
  • 操作系统的功能： 
    • 硬件驱动。
    • 进程管理。
    • 内存管理。
    • 网络管理。
    • 安全管理。
    • 文件管理。
  • 那么，操作系统的作用，就是这样的，即： 
    • 对下，管理计算机的硬件资源。
    • 对上，提供使用计算机资源的操作方式，有： 
      • 系统调用：是一套已经写好的代码接口，应用程序通过调用这些接口来请求操作系统执行特定的硬件操作。它们直接与硬件交互，提供底层功能支持，如：文件操作、进程管理、内存管理等。开发者通过系统调用可以实现对底层资源的直接控制，确保程序能够高效、安全地运行。
      • 终端命令：是一种文本命令接口，通过命令行输入各种指令来控制操作系统和软件的行为。终端命令可以执行文件操作、系统配置、网络管理等各种任务。主要针对开发人员和高级用户，他们通过命令行可以快速、精确地完成各种操作，提高工作效率。
      • 图形用户界面（GUI）是通过图形元素（如：窗口、图标、按钮等）与用户进行交互的界面。供直观、易用的操作方式，使用户能够通过鼠标点击、拖拽等简单操作完成复杂任务。主要面向普通用户，降低了计算机操作的门槛，提高了用户体验和工作效率。
1.4.2 用户态和内核态 ​
  • 在现代操作系统中，用户态（User Mode）和内核态（Kernel Mode）是两种不同的执行模式，它们对系统资源的访问权限有着本质的区别。这种区分是为了提供一个稳定和安全的运行环境，防止用户程序直接操作硬件设备和关键的系统资源，从而可能引起系统的不稳定或安全问题。
  • 核态（Kernel Mode） VS 用户态（User Mode）：
类型内核态（Kernel Mode）用户态（User Mode）
权限内核态是操作系统代码运行的模式，拥有访问系统全部资源和执行硬件操作的最高权限。在这种模式下，操作系统的核心部分可以直接访问内存、硬件设备控制、管理文件系统和网络通信等。用户态是普通应用程序运行的模式，具有较低的系统资源访问权限。在用户态，程序不能直接执行硬件操作，必须通过操作系统提供的接口（即系统调用）来请求服务。
安全性由于内核态具有如此高的权限，因此只有可信的、经过严格审查的操作系统核心组件才被允许在此模式下运行。这样可以保护系统不被恶意软件破坏。用户态为系统提供了一层保护，确保用户程序不能直接访问关键的系统资源，防止系统崩溃和数据泄露。
功能内核态提供了系统调用的接口，允许用户态程序安全地请求使用操作系统提供的服务，比如：文件操作、网络通信、内存管理等。用户态保证了操作系统的稳定性和安全性，同时也使得多个程序可以在相互隔离的环境中同时运行，避免相互干扰。
NOTE
  • ① 操作系统通过用户态和内核态的分离，实现了对系统资源的保护和控制。
  • ② 当用户程序需要进行文件读写、网络通信或其他需要操作系统介入的操作时，会发生从用户态到内核态的切换。这通过系统调用（System Call）实现，系统调用是用户程序与操作系统内核通信的桥梁。
  • ③ 执行完毕后，系统从内核态返回用户态，继续执行用户程序。
  • ④ 用户态和内核态的这种分离设计是现代操作系统中实现安全、稳定运行的关键机制之一。
  • 示例：
java
import java.io.IOException;
 import java.nio.file.Files;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
 import java.nio.file.Paths;
@@ -35,13 +35,13 @@ import{_ as i,c as s,o as l,a6 as a}from"./chunks/framework.CZRoMP2i.js";const e
         System.out.println(b);                      // 用户态
         System.out.println(c);                      // 用户态
     }
-}
1.4.3 ISA、ABI 和 API ​
  • ISA 、ABI 和 API 的参考模型如下：
  • 在底层，硬件模型以指令集架构 （ISA） 表示，该架构定义了处理器、寄存器、存储器和中断管理的指令集。ISA 是硬件和软件之间的接口，对于操作系统 （OS） 开发人员 （System ISA） 和直接管理底层硬件的应用程序 （User ISA） 的开发人员来说非常重要。
NOTE
  • ① ISA 是计算机体系结构中定义的一组指令，它规定了处理器能够执行的操作。ISA 包括指令的编码、寄存器的使用、内存访问模式等。不同的处理器可能有不同的 ISA，例如：x86、ARM、MIPS 等。
  • ② 在设计一个新的操作系统时，开发者需要确保操作系统能够支持特定的 ISA ，以便在特定的硬件上运行。例如：如果操作系统旨在运行在 ARM 架构的处理器上，那么它必须能够理解和执行 ARM ISA 定义的指令集。
  • 应用程序二进制接口 （ABI） 将操作系统层与由操作系统管理的应用程序和库分开。ABI 涵盖了低级数据类型、对齐方式和调用约定等详细信息，并定义了可执行程序的格式。系统调用在此级别定义。此接口允许应用程序和库在实现相同 ABI 的操作系统之间移植。
NOTE
  • ① ABI 是指在二进制级别上，应用程序与操作系统、库或应用程序的不同部分之间的接口。它定义了数据类型的大小、布局、对齐方式，以及函数调用的约定（如参数如何传递、返回值如何处理等）。ABI 确保了编译后的二进制文件能够在特定的操作系统和硬件平台上正确地运行。
  • ② 在 windows 上的应用程序的运行格式是：PE（portable executable）格式、.dll （dynamic link library）格式和 .lib 格式；而在 Linux 上的应用程序的运行格式是：ELF（executable and linking format）格式、.so （shared object）格式和 .a 格式。
  • ③ 在 Linux 中可以通过 file /bin/ls 命令查看指定可执行应用程序的 ABI 格式；从而也可以论证，在 Windows 上可以运行的程序，在 Linux 上运行不了。
  • ④ 当开发者在 Linux 系统上编写 C 语言程序，并使用特定的编译器（如：GCC）编译时，编译器会遵循 Linux 平台的 ABI 规范来生成二进制文件。这样，生成的可执行文件就可以在任何遵循相同 ABI 规范的 Linux 系统上运行。
  • ⑤ 如果一个应用程序需要跨平台（操作系统）运行，就需要使用一套代码，多平台编译的方式（针对 C 或 C++ 等），即：相同的源代码，在不同平台（操作系统）上使用特定平台的编译器（如：GCC）来分别编译成符合自己平台的 ABI 规范的二进制文件。
  • 最高级别的抽象由应用程序编程接口 （API） 表示，它将应用程序连接到库或底层操作系统。
NOTE
  • ① API 是一组预定义的函数、协议和工具，用于构建软件和应用程序。API 允许不同的软件系统相互交互，它定义了软件组件之间如何相互通信。API 可以是库、框架、协议或服务。
  • ② 在 Web 开发中，开发者可能会使用 JavaScript 的 Fetch API 来与服务器进行通信，获取数据或提交表单。这个 API 提供了一种标准化的方式来发送 HTTP 请求和处理响应，而不需要开发者关心底层的网络协议细节。
1.4.4 系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call） ​
  • 在现代操作系统中，应用程序都不能直接作用于硬件，而是运行在操作系统之上。
  • 并且，在上文的图示中，我们也会看到系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call）的身影，如下：
  • 其实，系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call）的区别如下：
类型系统调用（System Call）函数库（Library Call）
定义系统调用是操作系统提供给程序员的一组接口，这些接口允许用户空间的程序请求操作系统内核提供的服务，比如文件操作、进程控制、通信和内存管理等。函数库调用是指使用高级语言编写的一组预先编译好的函数，这些函数实现了一些常用的功能，比如：字符串处理、数学计算等。程序员可以在自己的程序中直接调用这些函数，而无需重新实现它们。
权限执行系统调用时，会从用户态切换到内核态。这是因为系统调用涉及到访问受保护的系统资源，这些操作必须由操作系统控制以确保系统的稳定性和安全性。函数库调用通常在用户态执行，不涉及到用户态与内核态之间的切换。它们直接使用操作系统通过系统调用提供的服务，或者完全在用户空间内完成计算，不需要操作系统介入。
性能开销由于涉及到用户态与内核态之间的切换，系统调用的执行成本相对较高。因此，频繁的系统调用可能会影响程序的性能。相对于系统调用，函数库调用的性能开销较小。因为它们通常不涉及到模式切换，且执行的操作多在用户空间完成。
示例open()，read()，write()，fork()，exec() 等 UNIX/Linux 系统调用。C 标准库中的 printf() 等函数；数学库中的 sin()，cos() 等函数。
NOTE
  • ① 执行层级：系统调用直接与操作系统内核交互，执行更底层的操作；而函数库调用运行在用户空间，通常使用系统调用来实现其功能。
  • ② 性能开销：系统调用由于涉及到用户态与内核态的切换，性能开销相对较大；函数库调用则因为主要在用户态执行，性能开销较小。
  • ③ 使用目的：系统调用提供了访问操作系统资源和服务的能力；函数库调用则提供了方便、高效执行常见任务的手段。
第二章：初识计算机语言 ​
2.1 计算机语言是什么？ ​
  • 人类语言是人和人之间用于沟通的一种方式，例如：中国人和中国人之间使用普通话沟通，而中国人和美国人交流，则可以使用英语。
NOTE
  • ① 中文有自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则），英文也是自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则）；同样的道理，法语、韩国等各种人类语言都有自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则）。
  • ② 在和别的国家的人进行交流的时候，我们必须正确的表达，对方才会理解我们；否则，如果不熟悉对方国家的语言的语法规则，乱用语法规则，可能会贻笑大方，如：中文中的望其项背原指看见对方的背影，形容差距不大，能赶上；但是，很多人却认为这是形容遥不可及或难以企及的目标。
  • ③ 就算和本国家的人进行交流的时候，我们也必须正确的表达，对方才会理解我们；否则，如果乱用语法规则，可能也会让对方感觉奇怪，听不懂我们的意思，如：借我 5000 RMB 买 iphone 或者 5000 RMB 我买 iphone 借。
  • 计算机编程语言是人和计算机交流的方式。人们可以使用编程语言对计算机下达命令（指令），让计算机完成人们需要的功能。
NOTE
  • ① 计算机语言也有自己固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则），我们必须学习其语法规则，才能控制计算机，让计算机完成我们所需要的功能。
  • ② 计算机语言有很多种，如：C、C++、Java、Go、JavaScript、Python、Scala 等。
2.2 为什么要学习计算机语言？ ​
  • 编程语言到底是什么？编程语言就是由文字和符号组成的，如：
c
#include <stdio.h> // 这是编译预处理指令
+}
1.4.3 ISA、ABI 和 API ​
  • ISA 、ABI 和 API 的参考模型如下：
  • 在底层，硬件模型以指令集架构 （ISA） 表示，该架构定义了处理器、寄存器、存储器和中断管理的指令集。ISA 是硬件和软件之间的接口，对于操作系统 （OS） 开发人员 （System ISA） 和直接管理底层硬件的应用程序 （User ISA） 的开发人员来说非常重要。
NOTE
  • ① ISA 是计算机体系结构中定义的一组指令，它规定了处理器能够执行的操作。ISA 包括指令的编码、寄存器的使用、内存访问模式等。不同的处理器可能有不同的 ISA，例如：x86、ARM、MIPS 等。
  • ② 在设计一个新的操作系统时，开发者需要确保操作系统能够支持特定的 ISA ，以便在特定的硬件上运行。例如：如果操作系统旨在运行在 ARM 架构的处理器上，那么它必须能够理解和执行 ARM ISA 定义的指令集。
  • 应用程序二进制接口 （ABI） 将操作系统层与由操作系统管理的应用程序和库分开。ABI 涵盖了低级数据类型、对齐方式和调用约定等详细信息，并定义了可执行程序的格式。系统调用在此级别定义。此接口允许应用程序和库在实现相同 ABI 的操作系统之间移植。
NOTE
  • ① ABI 是指在二进制级别上，应用程序与操作系统、库或应用程序的不同部分之间的接口。它定义了数据类型的大小、布局、对齐方式，以及函数调用的约定（如参数如何传递、返回值如何处理等）。ABI 确保了编译后的二进制文件能够在特定的操作系统和硬件平台上正确地运行。
  • ② 在 windows 上的应用程序的运行格式是：PE（portable executable）格式、.dll （dynamic link library）格式和 .lib 格式；而在 Linux 上的应用程序的运行格式是：ELF（executable and linking format）格式、.so （shared object）格式和 .a 格式。
  • ③ 在 Linux 中可以通过 file /bin/ls 命令查看指定可执行应用程序的 ABI 格式；从而也可以论证，在 Windows 上可以运行的程序，在 Linux 上运行不了。
  • ④ 当开发者在 Linux 系统上编写 C 语言程序，并使用特定的编译器（如：GCC）编译时，编译器会遵循 Linux 平台的 ABI 规范来生成二进制文件。这样，生成的可执行文件就可以在任何遵循相同 ABI 规范的 Linux 系统上运行。
  • ⑤ 如果一个应用程序需要跨平台（操作系统）运行，就需要使用一套代码，多平台编译的方式（针对 C 或 C++ 等），即：相同的源代码，在不同平台（操作系统）上使用特定平台的编译器（如：GCC）来分别编译成符合自己平台的 ABI 规范的二进制文件。
  • 最高级别的抽象由应用程序编程接口 （API） 表示，它将应用程序连接到库或底层操作系统。
NOTE
  • ① API 是一组预定义的函数、协议和工具，用于构建软件和应用程序。API 允许不同的软件系统相互交互，它定义了软件组件之间如何相互通信。API 可以是库、框架、协议或服务。
  • ② 在 Web 开发中，开发者可能会使用 JavaScript 的 Fetch API 来与服务器进行通信，获取数据或提交表单。这个 API 提供了一种标准化的方式来发送 HTTP 请求和处理响应，而不需要开发者关心底层的网络协议细节。
1.4.4 系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call） ​
  • 在现代操作系统中，应用程序都不能直接作用于硬件，而是运行在操作系统之上。
  • 并且，在上文的图示中，我们也会看到系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call）的身影，如下：
  • 其实，系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call）的区别如下：
类型系统调用（System Call）函数库（Library Call）
定义系统调用是操作系统提供给程序员的一组接口，这些接口允许用户空间的程序请求操作系统内核提供的服务，比如文件操作、进程控制、通信和内存管理等。函数库调用是指使用高级语言编写的一组预先编译好的函数，这些函数实现了一些常用的功能，比如：字符串处理、数学计算等。程序员可以在自己的程序中直接调用这些函数，而无需重新实现它们。
权限执行系统调用时，会从用户态切换到内核态。这是因为系统调用涉及到访问受保护的系统资源，这些操作必须由操作系统控制以确保系统的稳定性和安全性。函数库调用通常在用户态执行，不涉及到用户态与内核态之间的切换。它们直接使用操作系统通过系统调用提供的服务，或者完全在用户空间内完成计算，不需要操作系统介入。
性能开销由于涉及到用户态与内核态之间的切换，系统调用的执行成本相对较高。因此，频繁的系统调用可能会影响程序的性能。相对于系统调用，函数库调用的性能开销较小。因为它们通常不涉及到模式切换，且执行的操作多在用户空间完成。
示例open()，read()，write()，fork()，exec() 等 UNIX/Linux 系统调用。C 标准库中的 printf() 等函数；数学库中的 sin()，cos() 等函数。
NOTE
  • ① 执行层级：系统调用直接与操作系统内核交互，执行更底层的操作；而函数库调用运行在用户空间，通常使用系统调用来实现其功能。
  • ② 性能开销：系统调用由于涉及到用户态与内核态的切换，性能开销相对较大；函数库调用则因为主要在用户态执行，性能开销较小。
  • ③ 使用目的：系统调用提供了访问操作系统资源和服务的能力；函数库调用则提供了方便、高效执行常见任务的手段。
第二章：初识计算机语言 ​
2.1 计算机语言是什么？ ​
  • 人类语言是人和人之间用于沟通的一种方式，例如：中国人和中国人之间使用普通话沟通，而中国人和美国人交流，则可以使用英语。
NOTE
  • ① 中文有自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则），英文也是自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则）；同样的道理，法语、韩国等各种人类语言都有自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则）。
  • ② 在和别的国家的人进行交流的时候，我们必须正确的表达，对方才会理解我们；否则，如果不熟悉对方国家的语言的语法规则，乱用语法规则，可能会贻笑大方，如：中文中的望其项背原指看见对方的背影，形容差距不大，能赶上；但是，很多人却认为这是形容遥不可及或难以企及的目标。
  • ③ 就算和本国家的人进行交流的时候，我们也必须正确的表达，对方才会理解我们；否则，如果乱用语法规则，可能也会让对方感觉奇怪，听不懂我们的意思，如：借我 5000 RMB 买 iphone 或者 5000 RMB 我买 iphone 借。
  • 计算机编程语言是人和计算机交流的方式。人们可以使用编程语言对计算机下达命令（指令），让计算机完成人们需要的功能。
NOTE
  • ① 计算机语言也有自己固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则），我们必须学习其语法规则，才能控制计算机，让计算机完成我们所需要的功能。
  • ② 计算机语言有很多种，如：C、C++、Java、Go、JavaScript、Python、Scala 等。
2.2 为什么要学习计算机语言？ ​
  • 编程语言到底是什么？编程语言就是由文字和符号组成的，如：
c
#include <stdio.h> // 这是编译预处理指令
 
 int main() { // 定义主函数
 
     printf("你好，世界！！！"); // 输出所指定的一行信息
 
     return 0;  // 函数执行完毕时返回函数值0
-}
  • 编程语言就是用于控制计算机，让其完成我们需要的功能。而我们学习编程语言，其实就是学习这些文字和符号编写的规则。
  • 因为 CPU 只能识别二进制的指令，而我们编写的程序叫做源代码，是人类能看懂；但是，计算机却不能识别。那么，我们就需要让计算机能识别我们编写的源程序，就需要将我们编写的源代码交给编译器程序，其会帮助我们将所编写的源代码转换为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
NOTE
编译器就是运行在操作系统之上的程序，其作用就是用来将程序员编写的源代码转换为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
  • 如果我们用 Java 语言编写了程序（源代码），那么编写的程序也是不能直接运行的，需要通过 Java 语言的编译器将 Java 程序编译为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
  • 如果我们用 Python 语言编写了程序（源代码），那么编写的程序也是不能直接运行的，需要通过 Python 语言的编译器将 Python 程序编译为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
  • ……
  • 总而言之，无论我们学习任何一门编程语言，想要将程序运行起来，都必须做如下的两件事情： 
    • ① 学习该语言的文字和符号编写的规则，即：语法规则。
    • ② 需要在操作系统上安装对应编程语言的编译器程序，将源程序编译为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
2.3 计算机语言简史 ​
2.3.1 机器语言（相当于人类的石器时代） ​
  • 1946 年 2 月 14 日，世界上第一台计算机 ENIAC 诞生，使用的是最原始的穿透卡片。
  • 这种卡片使用的是用二进制代码表示的语言，和人类语言差别极大，这种语言就称为机器语言，如：
txt
0000,0000,000000010000 代表 LOAD A, 16
+}
  • 编程语言就是用于控制计算机，让其完成我们需要的功能。而我们学习编程语言，其实就是学习这些文字和符号编写的规则。
  • 因为 CPU 只能识别二进制的指令，而我们编写的程序叫做源代码，是人类能看懂；但是，计算机却不能识别。那么，我们就需要让计算机能识别我们编写的源程序，就需要将我们编写的源代码交给编译器程序，其会帮助我们将所编写的源代码转换为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
NOTE
编译器就是运行在操作系统之上的程序，其作用就是用来将程序员编写的源代码转换为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
  • 如果我们用 Java 语言编写了程序（源代码），那么编写的程序也是不能直接运行的，需要通过 Java 语言的编译器将 Java 程序编译为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
  • 如果我们用 Python 语言编写了程序（源代码），那么编写的程序也是不能直接运行的，需要通过 Python 语言的编译器将 Python 程序编译为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
  • ……
  • 总而言之，无论我们学习任何一门编程语言，想要将程序运行起来，都必须做如下的两件事情： 
    • ① 学习该语言的文字和符号编写的规则，即：语法规则。
    • ② 需要在操作系统上安装对应编程语言的编译器程序，将源程序编译为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
2.3 计算机语言简史 ​
2.3.1 机器语言（相当于人类的石器时代） ​
  • 1946 年 2 月 14 日，世界上第一台计算机 ENIAC 诞生，使用的是最原始的穿透卡片。
  • 这种卡片使用的是用二进制代码表示的语言，和人类语言差别极大，这种语言就称为机器语言，如：
txt
0000,0000,000000010000 代表 LOAD A, 16
 0000,0001,000000000001 代表 LOAD B, 1
-0001,0001,000000010000 代表 STORE B, 16
  • 这种语言本质上是计算机能识别的唯一语言，人类很难理解；换言之，当时的程序员 99.9% 都是异类！！！
IMPORTANT
  • ① 不同类型（CPU 架构，如：x86_64、arm 等）的处理器有不同的机器语言指令集，指令集架构（ISA）决定了机器语言的具体形式。
  • ② 换言之，机器语言与特定硬件架构紧密相关，机器语言程序几乎没有可移植性。
2.3.2 汇编语言（相当于人类的青铜&铁器时代） ​
  • 汇编语言使用助记符（如：MOV、ADD、SUB）代替二进制操作码，使程序更易于人类编写和理解；因此，汇编语言也被称为符号语言。
  • 汇编语言的优点是能编写高效率的程序；但是，缺点和机器语言没什么不同，汇编语言同样依赖于具体的计算机架构（面向机器），程序不具备跨平台的可移植性。
NOTE
  • ① 汇编语言，目前仍然应用于工业电子编程领域、软件的加密解密、计算机病毒分析等。
  • ② 汇编语言是编程语言的拓荒年代，它非常底层，直接和计算机硬件打交道，开发效率低，学习成本高。
2.3.3 高级语言（相当于人类的信息时代） ​
  • 高级语言是一种接近于人们使用习惯的程序设计语言。它允许程序员使用接近日常英语的指令来编写程序，程序中的符号和算式也和日常使用的数学公式差不多，接近于自然语言和数学语言，容易被人们掌握。
  • 高级语言独立于计算机硬件，有一定的通用性；计算机不能直接识别和执行用高级语言编写的程序，需要使用编译器或解释器转换为机器语言，才能被计算机识别和执行。
NOTE
  • ① 普遍使用的高级编程语言，有：C、C++、Java、Python、C#、JavaScript、Go、SQL 等。
  • ② C 语言是“面向过程”的编程语言，已经脱离了计算机硬件，可以用来设计和开发中等规模的程序。
  • ③ Java、C++、Python、C# 等都是“面向对象”的编程语言（它们在“面向过程”的基础上又增加了很多概念），可以用来设计和开发中大型规模的程序。
总结：C 语言出现的时候，已经度过了编程语言的拓荒年代，具备了现代编程语言的特性，但是这个时候还没有出现“软件危机”，人们没有动力去开发更加高级的语言，所以也没有太复杂的编程思想；而之后出现的“面向对象”的编程思想解决了一部分在“软件危机”上的窘境。
2.3.4 总结 ​
  • 编写语言的对比，如下所示：
类别特征优点缺点示例
机器语言直接由计算机执行的二进制代码执行速度快编写困难，可读性差，与具体硬件强绑定二进制代码
汇编语言用助记符代替二进制代码的低级语言相对机器语言更易编写和理解，允许直接控制硬件资源依然需要了解硬件，不够抽象，与具体硬件或平台相关MOV，ADD 等助记符
高级语言接近人类语言，提供了更高层次的抽象易于编写和维护，可移植性好，支持多种编程范式需要通过编译器或解释器转换为机器语言，可能存在一定的性能损失C，Java， Python 等
NOTE
  • ① 这三种编程语言类型从低级到高级提供了不同层次的抽象，以满足不同的编程需求和场景。
  • ② 随着计算机科学的发展，高级语言因其强大的表达能力、良好的可移植性和易用性，成为了日常软件开发的主流选择。
第三章：初识 C 语言 ​
3.1 C 语言的由来 ​
  • 1969 年，美国贝尔实验室的肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson）和丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）一起开发了 Unix 操作系统。Unix 最初是使用汇编语言编写的，依赖于计算机硬件。为了程序的可读性和可移植性，它们决定使用高级语言重写。但是。当时的高级语言无法满足他们的要求，肯·汤姆森就在 BCPL 语言的基础上发明了 B 语言。
  • 1972 年，丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）在 B 语言的基础上重新设计了一种新的语言，这种新语言取代了 B 语言，即 C 语言。
  • 1973 年，整个 Unix 系统都使用 C 语言重写。
NOTE
C 语言最初是作为 Unix 系统的开发工具而发明的。
  • 此后，这种语言快速流传，广泛用于各种操作系统和系统软件的开发，如：Unix、MS-DOS、Microsoft Windows 以及 Linux 等。
  • 1988 年，美国国家标准协会（ANSI）正式将 C 语言标准化，标志着 C 语言开始稳定和规范化。
3.2 为什么要学习 C 语言？ ​
  • ① C 语言具有可移植好、跨平台的特点：用 C 语言编写的代码可以在不同的操作系统和硬件平台上编译和运行。
NOTE
  • ① C 语言的最原始的设计目的，就是为了将 Unix 操作系统移植到其他的计算机架构上，这使得它从一开始就非常注重可移植性。
  • ② 这边所说的 C 语言的可移植性，是和汇编语言相比的；如果 C 语言和现代化的高级编程语言相比，可移植性还是很差的，如：Java 的口号是“一次编译，到处运行”，Go 的口号是“一次编译，到处执行”。
  • ② C 语言在许多领域应用广泛。 
    • 操作系统：C 广泛用于开发操作系统，如：Unix、Linux 和 Windows。
    • 嵌入式系统：C 是一种用于开发嵌入式系统（如：微控制器、微处理器和其它电子设备）的流程语言。
    • 系统软件：C 用于开发设备驱动程序、编译器和汇编器等系统软件。
    • 网络：C 语言广泛用于开发网络应用程序，例如：Web 服务器、网络协议和网络驱动程序。
    • 数据库系统：C 用于开发数据库系统，例如：Oracle、MySQL 和 PostgreSQL 。
    • 游戏：由于 C 能够处理低级硬件交互，因此经常用于开发计算机游戏。
    • 人工智能：C 用于开发人工智能和机器学习的应用程序，例如：神经网络和深度学习算法。
    • 科学应用：C 用于开发科学应用程序，例如：仿真软件和数值分析工具。
    • 金融应用：C 用于开发股票市场分析和交易系统等金融应用。
  • ③ C 语言能够直接对硬件进行操作、管理内存以及和操作系统对话，这使得它是一种非常接近底层的语言，非常适合写需要和硬件交互、有极高性能要求的程序。
NOTE
  • C 语言毕竟诞生的时间非常早（20 世纪 70 年代），属于 70 后了，有点落后于现在的时代，虽然执行效率高，但是开发效率低。
  • 随着时间的推移，人们在 C 语言的基础上增加了面向对象的机制（软件危机），形成了一门新的编程语言，它的名字是 C++ 。
  • 但是，C++ 的特性实在是太多了（因为 C++ 兼容 C，并增加了很多自己独有的特性，可以是当今最复杂的编程语言，没有之一），于是人们在 C++ 的基础上，删减了一些非必要的特性，就形成了 Java 和 C# ，也可以认为 Java 和 C# 是 C++--。
  • 当然，近年来，Go 语言也很火，它的设计者之一就是 Unix 操作系统的的开发者肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson），Go 诞生的背景据说是肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson）在 C++ 委员会在为其演讲 C++ 新特性的时候，觉得 C++ 新特性太多太复杂，于是就开发了 Go 语言；所以，Go 语言中有很多 C 语言的身影。
  • 其实，在 C 语言之后的许多编程语言，或多或少都参考了 C 语言；所以，编程界流传了一句话：汇编生 C ，C 生万物。
  • ④ 学习 C 语言有助于快速上手其他编程语言，如：C++（原先是 C 语言的一个扩展，在 C 语言的基础上嫁接了面向对象编程思想）、C#、Java 等，这些语言都继承或深受 C 语言的影响和启发。
  • ⑤ C 语言长盛不衰。C 语言至今，依然是最广泛使用、最流行的编程语言之一，包括很多大学将 C 语言作为计算机教学的入门语言，拥有庞大而活跃的用户社区，这意味着有许多资源和库可供开发人员使用。
3.3 计算机语言排行榜 ​
  • TIOBE 是一个流行编程语言排行，每月更新。排名权重基于世界范围内工程师数量，Google、Bing、Yahoo! 、Wikipedia、Amazon、Youtube 和百度这些主流的搜索引擎，也将作为排名权重的参考指标。
  • 计算机语言走势图：
3.4 C 语言的版本选择 ​
  • 随着微型计算机的日益普及，出现了许多 C 语言版本（标准）：
    • 版本 1（K＆R C）：K&R C 指的是 C 语言的原始版本。1978年，C 语言的发明者布莱恩·柯林（Brian Kernighan）和丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）合写了一本著名的教材《C 编程语言》（The C programming language）。
    NOTE
    由于 C 语言还没有成文的语法标准，这本书就成了公认标准，以两位作者的姓氏首字母作为版本简称 “K&R C”。
    • 版本 2（ANSI C，又称 C89 或 C90）：C 语言的原始版本非常简单，对很多情况的描述非常模糊，加上 C 语法依然在快速发展，要求将 C 语言标准化的呼声越来越高。1989 年，美国国家标准协会（ANSI）制定了一套 C 语言标准，并于次年被国际标准化组织（ISO）通过。它被称为 “ANSI C”，也可以按照发布年份，称为 “C89 或 C90”。
    • 版本 3（C99）：C 语言标准的第一次大型修订，发生在 1999 年，增加了许多语言特性，比如：双斜杠（ // ）的注释语法，可变长度数组、灵活的数组成员、复数、内联函数和指定的初始值设定项，这个版本称为 C99，是目前最流行的 C 版本。
    • 版本 4（C11）：2011 年，标准化组织再一次对 C 语言进行修订，增加了_Generic、static_assert 和原子类型限定符。这个版本称为 C11。
    NOTE
    需要强调的是，修订标准的原因并不是因为原标准不能用，而是需要跟进新的技术。
    • 版本 5（C17）：C11 标准在 2017 年进行了修补，但发布是在 2018 年。新版本只是解决了 C11 的一些缺陷，没有引入任何新功能。这个版本称为 C17。
    • 版本 6（C23）：2023 年发布，计划进一步增强安全性，消除实现定义的行为，引入模块化语言概念等新特性，使 C 语言在安全和可靠性方面有重大提高。
    • ……
第四章：C 语言的学习技巧 ​
4.1 如何学习 C 语言？ ​
  • 对于大部分的初学者， 学习 C 语言的目的可能是为了成为一名合格的程序员，开发出优秀的软件。但是，在学习了 C 语言的基本语法后，却发现只能在控制台（黑底白字）上玩玩，没有漂亮的用户界面以及人性化的交互。于是，开始学习数据结构、算法、数据库、操作系统，越陷越深，越来越迷茫，不知道学习 C 语言能做什么，认为学习编程很难，开始怀疑自己，直到放弃！！！
  • 其实，C 语言本身就是一门非常简单的语言，提供的实用功能不多，大部分的时候需要借助操作系统、第三方库以及以及一些硬件才能发挥它的威力！！！
IMPORTANT
  • ① 学习 C 语言仅仅是让你踏上程序员之路的第一步而已，只学习 C 语言也做不了什么。
  • ② 系统、扎实的学习 C 语言可以让你了解底层硬件、一些简单的数据结构和算法，并培养计算机思维。
  • C 语言是一门通用性的语言，并没有针对某个领域进行优化，在实际项目中，C 语言主要用于比较底层的开发，例如： 
    • Windows、Linux、Unix 等操作系统的内核 90% 以上都使用 C 语言开发（Rust 语言有望未来，在操作系统开发中占据一席之地，特别是在对安全性和性能要求极高的领域）。
    • 开发硬件驱动，让硬件和操作系统连接起来，这样用户才能更有效的使用硬件。
    • 单片机和嵌入式属于软硬件的结合，是使用 C 语言最多的地方。
    • 开发系统组件或服务，用于支撑上层应用。
    • ……
  • 貌似感觉 C 语言的应用还是很多的啊，那为什么感觉学习 C 语言还是做不了什么？原因除了 C 语言通常都是开发最底层的应用之外，最重要的一点就是生态。
IMPORTANT
现代化的高级编程语言的流行程度，除了和编程语言的设计是否优秀有关，最主要的原因就是生态。
  • ① 很多编程语言都自带标准库（语言本身提供的，开箱即用），如：Java、Go 等。
  • ② 很多编程语言都有自己的包管理器（用于管理第三方库）解决方案，如：Java 中的 Maven、Gradle、Go 中的 go modules ，JavaScript 的 npm 等。
遗憾的是，C 语言的标准库非常简单，只有输入输出、文件操作、日期时间、字符串处理、内存管理，对于网络编程、GUI、数据库、并发等需要大量的第三方库或操作系统的功能来扩展 C 语言的功能（Java 语言、Go 语言等其他的现代化高级编程语言，都是直接将这些常见的开发场景内置到标准库中，开箱即用，极大的降低了软件开发的难度）。C 语言的第三方库也不是很多（和其它现代化高级编程语言相比），社区也不是很活跃（和其它现代化高级编程语言相比），更别提缺少自己的包管理器。
不过，现在 C 语言社区也开始诞生了一些包管理器，如：Conan 和 vcpkg ；也有自己的项目构建工具，如：cmake 、xmake 等。
NOTE
JavaScript 的作者 Brendan Eich（布兰登·艾奇） 曾经这么说：“与其说我爱 JavaScript，不如说我恨它。它是 C 语言和 Self 语言一夜情的产物（致敬 C 语言）。十八世纪英国文学家约翰逊博士说得好："它的优秀之处并非原创，它的原创之处并不优秀。"”
4.2 项目构建工具和包管理器 ​
4.2.1 概述 ​
  • 项目构建工具和包管理器在软件开发中扮演着不同的角色，它们虽然有时会有重叠的功能，但主要关注的点是不同的。
4.2.2 项目构建工具 ​
  • 项目构建工具是用于自动化编译、测试、打包、部署等一系列任务的软件工具。它们帮助开发者简化和管理整个软件开发生命周期中的各个步骤，尤其是在构建过程中的复杂性管理上。
  • 其功能有： 
    • 编译代码：自动编译源代码（如 ：.java、.c 等）为可执行文件或中间文件（如：.class 文件）。
    • 运行测试：集成单元测试、集成测试，自动运行测试用例并生成报告。
    • 打包：将编译后的代码、依赖库、资源文件等打包成可分发的格式（如：JAR、WAR、可执行文件等）。
    • 依赖管理：自动下载、更新和管理项目所需的第三方库（这部分功能有时与包管理器重叠）。
    • 部署：将打包后的应用程序自动部署到测试环境、生产环境等。
    • 任务自动化：除了基本的构建流程外，还可以自动化执行一些常见任务，如：代码检查、文档生成等。
  • 常用的项目构建工具： 
    • Maven（Java）：一个流行的构建工具和依赖管理工具，广泛用于 Java 项目。
    • Gradle（Java、Kotlin、Groovy）：一个灵活的构建工具，支持声明式的构建脚本和多种语言。
    • Make（C/C++）：一个经典的构建工具，使用 Makefile 来定义构建规则和依赖关系。
    • CMake（C/C++）：一个跨平台的构建系统，帮助生成标准的构建文件，如：Makefile 或 Visual Studio 项目文件。
    • ……
4.2.3 包管理器 ​
  • 包管理器是用于自动化安装、更新、配置和管理软件包及其依赖关系的工具。它主要关注于获取和管理项目所需的第三方库或工具包，并确保它们正确地集成到项目中。
  • 其功能有： 
    • 依赖管理：根据项目配置文件（如：package.json、requirements.txt）自动下载和安装项目所需的依赖包。
    • 版本控制：管理包的版本，允许开发者指定某个特定版本或版本范围，确保项目中的库版本一致性。
    • 包的发布和共享：开发者可以通过包管理器发布自己的库，并且共享给社区或组织内部的其他项目使用。
    • 环境隔离：有些包管理器提供虚拟环境功能，可以将不同项目的依赖隔离开，避免版本冲突。
    • 更新和卸载：包管理器可以自动更新依赖包到最新的兼容版本或卸载不再需要的包。
  • 常见的包管理器： 
    • npm（Node.js）：用于管理 JavaScript 和 Node.js 项目的包和模块。
    • pip（Python）：用于安装和管理 Python 的软件包。
    • Cargo（Rust）：Rust 编程语言的包管理器和构建工具。
    • Yarn（JavaScript）：是 npm 的替代品，提供更快和更可靠的包管理体验。
    • Homebrew（macOS）：用于 macOS 系统下的命令行工具和库的管理。
    • ……
4.2.3 注意事项 ​
  • 对于 Java 项目中的 Maven 或 Gradle 而言，其不仅是项目构建工具也是包管理工具。
NOTE
  • ① Gradle 也支持原生项目的开发，如：C 和 C++ 。
  • ② 不过，目前而言，业界开发 C/C++ 项目时，使用最多的项目构建工具和包管理器是 Cmake 和 Conan 。
第五章：附录 ​
5.1 嵌入式领域中的 C 语言 ​
5.1.1 概述 ​
  • C 语言在 C51、STM32 和 ARM 平台上的应用场景非常广泛，涵盖了各种嵌入式系统的开发需求。
5.1.2 C51（8051 系列微控制器） ​
  • 背景：8051 是由 Intel 于 1980 年设计的一种 8 位微控制器架构。它具有指令集简单、结构紧凑的特点，广泛应用于低端嵌入式系统中。
  • 开发工具：C51 是指针对 8051 系列微控制器的 C 语言编译器，如：Keil C51。这种编译器将 C 语言代码编译为适合 8051 架构的汇编代码。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 8051 微控制器上的应用使得开发更加高效和可维护。尽管 8051 的硬件资源有限，但 C 语言仍然能够在不损失性能的前提下提供高级编程的便利。
  • 应用场景： 
    • 简单的控制系统：家用电器（微波炉、洗衣机、空调）的控制板等。这些设备通常不需要复杂的运算能力，但要求可靠和稳定的控制。
    • 低功耗传感器接口：C51 微控制器常用于低功耗传感器的数据采集和传输，如：温度、湿度、压力传感器。
    • 工业自动化设备：用于简单的工业自动化控制，如：小型电机驱动、工业传感器数据处理和传输。
    • 电子玩具：许多简单的电子玩具使用 8051 系列微控制器来控制声音、LED 灯光、显示屏等。
NOTE
总结：C51 微控制器适用于资源受限、需要低成本的简单控制系统，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发！！！
5.1.3 STM32（STM32 系列微控制器） ​
  • 背景：STM32 是意法半导体（STMicroelectronics）推出的一系列基于 ARM Cortex-M 内核的 32 位微控制器。它们广泛用于需要高性能和低功耗的嵌入式应用中，如：工业控制、消费电子和物联网设备。
  • 开发工具：开发 STM32 微控制器通常使用 Keil、IAR Embedded Workbench 或 STM32CubeIDE 等开发环境。这些环境中使用的编程语言主要是 C（有时也包括 C++）。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 STM32 上的应用非常广泛，开发者可以利用它直接控制硬件寄存器，同时也能方便地使用 STM32 提供的 HAL（硬件抽象层）库或 LL（低层）库进行开发。C 语言在这个平台上不仅能实现底层控制，还能编写复杂的应用逻辑。
  • 应用场景： 
    • 物联网（IoT）设备：STM32 微控制器常用于各种物联网设备，如：智能家居控制系统、环境监测设备、可穿戴设备等。这些设备通常需要低功耗和强大的处理能力，并且需要支持多种通信协议，如：Wi-Fi、Bluetooth、LoRa。
    • 消费电子：智能手表、健身追踪器、电子书阅读器、无人机等，这些设备需要具备实时处理能力、低功耗和良好的外设支持。
    • 医疗设备：STM32 微控制器被广泛应用于便携式医疗设备中，如：血糖监测仪、心率监测器、便携式超声设备等，这些设备需要精确的传感器数据采集和处理。
    • 工业自动化控制：PLC（可编程逻辑控制器）、工业机器人、伺服电机控制等，STM32 能够处理复杂的控制算法和实时任务。
    • 汽车电子：用于汽车中的传感器管理、车载信息娱乐系统、车身控制系统（车窗、电动座椅调节等）。
NOTE
总结：STM32 微控制器在物联网、消费电子、医疗设备和工业控制等领域表现出色，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发，因为 C 语言允许直接进行硬件控制并支持复杂的应用开发。
5.1.3 ARM 架构（特别是 ARM Cortex 系列） ​
  • 背景：ARM 是一种广泛使用的处理器架构，特别是在嵌入式系统中，ARM Cortex 系列处理器（如 Cortex-M、Cortex-R 和 Cortex-A）非常流行。Cortex-M 系列主要用于微控制器，Cortex-R 用于实时系统，Cortex-A 则用于高性能嵌入式系统。
  • 开发工具：针对 ARM 架构的开发，常用工具包括 ARM Keil MDK、IAR、GCC for ARM 和 ARM Development Studio。这些工具均支持使用 C 语言进行开发。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 ARM 架构上的应用广泛。它被用于操作系统内核（如 FreeRTOS、Zephyr）、设备驱动、应用层逻辑等。在 ARM Cortex-M 和 Cortex-R 系列中，C 语言的高效性和低级别硬件访问能力是开发实时、低延迟系统的关键。
  • 应用场景： 
    • 高级嵌入式操作系统：ARM Cortex-A 系列处理器广泛用于运行 Linux、Android 等操作系统的嵌入式设备，如：智能手机、平板电脑、智能电视和车载娱乐系统。
    • 实时系统：ARM Cortex-R 系列处理器用于实时系统，如：汽车的 ABS（防抱死制动系统）、ESC（电子稳定控制系统），以及航空电子设备，这些系统要求极低的延迟和高可靠性。
    • 高性能物联网网关：Cortex-A 系列处理器可以用来开发支持多协议、多设备管理的物联网网关，这些网关通常需要强大的计算能力和多线程处理能力。
    • 边缘计算设备：在边缘计算场景中，ARM Cortex-A 处理器用于执行本地数据处理和决策，如：视频分析、图像处理、语音识别等。
    • 智能家居设备：ARM Cortex-M 系列微控制器广泛应用于智能家居产品，如：智能灯泡、智能音箱、家庭安全系统，这些设备需要高效的处理能力和低功耗。
    • 机器人控制系统：ARM Cortex-M 和 Cortex-A 系列处理器用于机器人系统的控制和通信，如：无人机、工业机器人、服务机器人等，处理复杂的运动控制、路径规划和传感器数据融合。
NOTE
总结：ARM Cortex 系列适用于从实时系统到高级嵌入式操作系统的各类应用，支持从低功耗控制到高性能计算的多种需求，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发，因为 C 语言不仅用于控制硬件，还广泛应用于操作系统和应用程序的开发。
5.2 C 和 C++ 的关系 ​
  • 起源和发展：
    • C 语言：C 语言由丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）在 1972 年开发，最初用于开发操作系统，特别是 UNIX。它是一种结构化的编程语言，提供了对硬件的低级访问，且效率高，因此在系统编程中广泛使用。
    • C++ 语言：C++ 由比雅尼·斯特劳斯特鲁普（Bjarne Stroustrup）在 20 世纪 80 年代初开发，作为 C 语言的扩展。它引入了面向对象编程的概念，同时保留了 C 语言的高效性和底层操作能力。C++ 最初被称为 “C with Classes”（带类的 C），后来发展成一种独立的编程语言。
  • 兼容型：
    • 语法兼容：C++ 几乎完全兼容 C 语言的语法，这意味着大多数 C 代码可以在 C++ 编译器下直接编译运行。C++ 可以看作是 C 语言的超集（虽然不完全是 100% 兼容，但差异较少）。
    • 扩展性：C++ 在 C 的基础上增加了许多新特性，如：类和对象、继承、多态、模板和异常处理等。这使得 C++ 不仅适合系统编程，还可以用于开发复杂的应用程序。
  • 编程范式：
    • C 语言：主要是面向过程编程，强调的是函数调用和控制结构。
    • C++ 语言：支持多种编程范式，包括：面向过程、面向对象和泛型编程，使得开发者可以更灵活地选择适合的编程风格。
  • 性能与应用：
    • 性能：由于 C++ 包含了更多的高级特性，它的编译时间和运行时开销可能比 C 稍高。但得益于其优化机制，C++ 仍然可以实现与 C 语言相近的性能。
    • 应用场景：C 语言仍然在嵌入式系统、驱动程序开发和其他对性能要求极高的场合中占据重要地位。而 C++ 则被广泛用于游戏开发、图形处理、大型软件系统等需要复杂结构和抽象的领域。
NOTE
总结：C++ 是 C 语言的继承者和扩展，它保留了 C 语言的优势，并引入了更多现代编程语言的特性，使得它在更广泛的应用领域中得到应用。
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  • 这种语言本质上是计算机能识别的唯一语言，人类很难理解；换言之，当时的程序员 99.9% 都是异类！！！

IMPORTANT

  • ① 不同类型（CPU 架构，如：x86_64、arm 等）的处理器有不同的机器语言指令集，指令集架构（ISA）决定了机器语言的具体形式。
  • ② 换言之，机器语言与特定硬件架构紧密相关，机器语言程序几乎没有可移植性。

2.3.2 汇编语言（相当于人类的青铜&铁器时代） ​

  • 汇编语言使用助记符（如：MOV、ADD、SUB）代替二进制操作码，使程序更易于人类编写和理解；因此，汇编语言也被称为符号语言。

  • 汇编语言的优点是能编写高效率的程序；但是，缺点和机器语言没什么不同，汇编语言同样依赖于具体的计算机架构（面向机器），程序不具备跨平台的可移植性。

NOTE

  • ① 汇编语言，目前仍然应用于工业电子编程领域、软件的加密解密、计算机病毒分析等。
  • ② 汇编语言是编程语言的拓荒年代，它非常底层，直接和计算机硬件打交道，开发效率低，学习成本高。

2.3.3 高级语言（相当于人类的信息时代） ​

  • 高级语言是一种接近于人们使用习惯的程序设计语言。它允许程序员使用接近日常英语的指令来编写程序，程序中的符号和算式也和日常使用的数学公式差不多，接近于自然语言和数学语言，容易被人们掌握。

  • 高级语言独立于计算机硬件，有一定的通用性；计算机不能直接识别和执行用高级语言编写的程序，需要使用编译器或解释器转换为机器语言，才能被计算机识别和执行。

NOTE

  • ① 普遍使用的高级编程语言，有：C、C++、Java、Python、C#、JavaScript、Go、SQL 等。
  • ② C 语言是“面向过程”的编程语言，已经脱离了计算机硬件，可以用来设计和开发中等规模的程序。
  • ③ Java、C++、Python、C# 等都是“面向对象”的编程语言（它们在“面向过程”的基础上又增加了很多概念），可以用来设计和开发中大型规模的程序。

总结：C 语言出现的时候，已经度过了编程语言的拓荒年代，具备了现代编程语言的特性，但是这个时候还没有出现“软件危机”，人们没有动力去开发更加高级的语言，所以也没有太复杂的编程思想；而之后出现的“面向对象”的编程思想解决了一部分在“软件危机”上的窘境。

2.3.4 总结 ​

  • 编写语言的对比，如下所示：
类别特征优点缺点示例
机器语言直接由计算机执行的二进制代码执行速度快编写困难，可读性差，与具体硬件强绑定二进制代码
汇编语言用助记符代替二进制代码的低级语言相对机器语言更易编写和理解，允许直接控制硬件资源依然需要了解硬件，不够抽象，与具体硬件或平台相关MOV，ADD 等助记符
高级语言接近人类语言，提供了更高层次的抽象易于编写和维护，可移植性好，支持多种编程范式需要通过编译器或解释器转换为机器语言，可能存在一定的性能损失C，Java， Python 等

NOTE

  • ① 这三种编程语言类型从低级到高级提供了不同层次的抽象，以满足不同的编程需求和场景。
  • ② 随着计算机科学的发展，高级语言因其强大的表达能力、良好的可移植性和易用性，成为了日常软件开发的主流选择。

第三章：初识 C 语言 ​

3.1 C 语言的由来 ​

  • 1969 年，美国贝尔实验室的肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson）和丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）一起开发了 Unix 操作系统。Unix 最初是使用汇编语言编写的，依赖于计算机硬件。为了程序的可读性和可移植性，它们决定使用高级语言重写。但是。当时的高级语言无法满足他们的要求，肯·汤姆森就在 BCPL 语言的基础上发明了 B 语言。
  • 1972 年，丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）在 B 语言的基础上重新设计了一种新的语言，这种新语言取代了 B 语言，即 C 语言。

  • 1973 年，整个 Unix 系统都使用 C 语言重写。

NOTE

C 语言最初是作为 Unix 系统的开发工具而发明的。

  • 此后，这种语言快速流传，广泛用于各种操作系统和系统软件的开发，如：Unix、MS-DOS、Microsoft Windows 以及 Linux 等。

  • 1988 年，美国国家标准协会（ANSI）正式将 C 语言标准化，标志着 C 语言开始稳定和规范化。

3.2 为什么要学习 C 语言？ ​

  • ① C 语言具有可移植好、跨平台的特点：用 C 语言编写的代码可以在不同的操作系统和硬件平台上编译和运行。

NOTE

  • ① C 语言的最原始的设计目的，就是为了将 Unix 操作系统移植到其他的计算机架构上，这使得它从一开始就非常注重可移植性。
  • ② 这边所说的 C 语言的可移植性，是和汇编语言相比的；如果 C 语言和现代化的高级编程语言相比，可移植性还是很差的，如：Java 的口号是“一次编译，到处运行”，Go 的口号是“一次编译，到处执行”。
  • ② C 语言在许多领域应用广泛。
    • 操作系统：C 广泛用于开发操作系统，如：Unix、Linux 和 Windows。
    • 嵌入式系统：C 是一种用于开发嵌入式系统（如：微控制器、微处理器和其它电子设备）的流程语言。
    • 系统软件：C 用于开发设备驱动程序、编译器和汇编器等系统软件。
    • 网络：C 语言广泛用于开发网络应用程序，例如：Web 服务器、网络协议和网络驱动程序。
    • 数据库系统：C 用于开发数据库系统，例如：Oracle、MySQL 和 PostgreSQL 。
    • 游戏：由于 C 能够处理低级硬件交互，因此经常用于开发计算机游戏。
    • 人工智能：C 用于开发人工智能和机器学习的应用程序，例如：神经网络和深度学习算法。
    • 科学应用：C 用于开发科学应用程序，例如：仿真软件和数值分析工具。
    • 金融应用：C 用于开发股票市场分析和交易系统等金融应用。
  • ③ C 语言能够直接对硬件进行操作、管理内存以及和操作系统对话，这使得它是一种非常接近底层的语言，非常适合写需要和硬件交互、有极高性能要求的程序。

NOTE

  • C 语言毕竟诞生的时间非常早（20 世纪 70 年代），属于 70 后了，有点落后于现在的时代，虽然执行效率高，但是开发效率低。
  • 随着时间的推移，人们在 C 语言的基础上增加了面向对象的机制（软件危机），形成了一门新的编程语言，它的名字是 C++ 。
  • 但是，C++ 的特性实在是太多了（因为 C++ 兼容 C，并增加了很多自己独有的特性，可以是当今最复杂的编程语言，没有之一），于是人们在 C++ 的基础上，删减了一些非必要的特性，就形成了 Java 和 C# ，也可以认为 Java 和 C# 是 C++--。
  • 当然，近年来，Go 语言也很火，它的设计者之一就是 Unix 操作系统的的开发者肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson），Go 诞生的背景据说是肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson）在 C++ 委员会在为其演讲 C++ 新特性的时候，觉得 C++ 新特性太多太复杂，于是就开发了 Go 语言；所以，Go 语言中有很多 C 语言的身影。
  • 其实，在 C 语言之后的许多编程语言，或多或少都参考了 C 语言；所以，编程界流传了一句话：汇编生 C ，C 生万物。
  • ④ 学习 C 语言有助于快速上手其他编程语言，如：C++（原先是 C 语言的一个扩展，在 C 语言的基础上嫁接了面向对象编程思想）、C#、Java 等，这些语言都继承或深受 C 语言的影响和启发。
  • ⑤ C 语言长盛不衰。C 语言至今，依然是最广泛使用、最流行的编程语言之一，包括很多大学将 C 语言作为计算机教学的入门语言，拥有庞大而活跃的用户社区，这意味着有许多资源和库可供开发人员使用。

3.3 计算机语言排行榜 ​

  • TIOBE 是一个流行编程语言排行，每月更新。排名权重基于世界范围内工程师数量，Google、Bing、Yahoo! 、Wikipedia、Amazon、Youtube 和百度这些主流的搜索引擎，也将作为排名权重的参考指标。

  • 计算机语言走势图：

3.4 C 语言的版本选择 ​

  • 随着微型计算机的日益普及，出现了许多 C 语言版本（标准）：

    • 版本 1（K＆R C）：K&R C 指的是 C 语言的原始版本。1978年，C 语言的发明者布莱恩·柯林（Brian Kernighan）和丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）合写了一本著名的教材《C 编程语言》（The C programming language）。

    NOTE

    由于 C 语言还没有成文的语法标准，这本书就成了公认标准，以两位作者的姓氏首字母作为版本简称 “K&R C”。

    • 版本 2（ANSI C，又称 C89 或 C90）：C 语言的原始版本非常简单，对很多情况的描述非常模糊，加上 C 语法依然在快速发展，要求将 C 语言标准化的呼声越来越高。1989 年，美国国家标准协会（ANSI）制定了一套 C 语言标准，并于次年被国际标准化组织（ISO）通过。它被称为 “ANSI C”，也可以按照发布年份，称为 “C89 或 C90”。

    • 版本 3（C99）：C 语言标准的第一次大型修订，发生在 1999 年，增加了许多语言特性，比如：双斜杠（ // ）的注释语法，可变长度数组、灵活的数组成员、复数、内联函数和指定的初始值设定项，这个版本称为 C99，是目前最流行的 C 版本。

    • 版本 4（C11）：2011 年，标准化组织再一次对 C 语言进行修订，增加了_Generic、static_assert 和原子类型限定符。这个版本称为 C11。

    NOTE

    需要强调的是，修订标准的原因并不是因为原标准不能用，而是需要跟进新的技术。

    • 版本 5（C17）：C11 标准在 2017 年进行了修补，但发布是在 2018 年。新版本只是解决了 C11 的一些缺陷，没有引入任何新功能。这个版本称为 C17。
    • 版本 6（C23）：2023 年发布，计划进一步增强安全性，消除实现定义的行为，引入模块化语言概念等新特性，使 C 语言在安全和可靠性方面有重大提高。
    • ……

第四章：C 语言的学习技巧 ​

4.1 如何学习 C 语言？ ​

  • 对于大部分的初学者， 学习 C 语言的目的可能是为了成为一名合格的程序员，开发出优秀的软件。但是，在学习了 C 语言的基本语法后，却发现只能在控制台（黑底白字）上玩玩，没有漂亮的用户界面以及人性化的交互。于是，开始学习数据结构、算法、数据库、操作系统，越陷越深，越来越迷茫，不知道学习 C 语言能做什么，认为学习编程很难，开始怀疑自己，直到放弃！！！
  • 其实，C 语言本身就是一门非常简单的语言，提供的实用功能不多，大部分的时候需要借助操作系统、第三方库以及以及一些硬件才能发挥它的威力！！！

IMPORTANT

  • ① 学习 C 语言仅仅是让你踏上程序员之路的第一步而已，只学习 C 语言也做不了什么。
  • ② 系统、扎实的学习 C 语言可以让你了解底层硬件、一些简单的数据结构和算法，并培养计算机思维。
  • C 语言是一门通用性的语言，并没有针对某个领域进行优化，在实际项目中，C 语言主要用于比较底层的开发，例如：
    • Windows、Linux、Unix 等操作系统的内核 90% 以上都使用 C 语言开发（Rust 语言有望未来，在操作系统开发中占据一席之地，特别是在对安全性和性能要求极高的领域）。
    • 开发硬件驱动，让硬件和操作系统连接起来，这样用户才能更有效的使用硬件。
    • 单片机和嵌入式属于软硬件的结合，是使用 C 语言最多的地方。
    • 开发系统组件或服务，用于支撑上层应用。
    • ……
  • 貌似感觉 C 语言的应用还是很多的啊，那为什么感觉学习 C 语言还是做不了什么？原因除了 C 语言通常都是开发最底层的应用之外，最重要的一点就是生态。

IMPORTANT

现代化的高级编程语言的流行程度，除了和编程语言的设计是否优秀有关，最主要的原因就是生态。

  • ① 很多编程语言都自带标准库（语言本身提供的，开箱即用），如：Java、Go 等。
  • ② 很多编程语言都有自己的包管理器（用于管理第三方库）解决方案，如：Java 中的 Maven、Gradle、Go 中的 go modules ，JavaScript 的 npm 等。

遗憾的是，C 语言的标准库非常简单，只有输入输出、文件操作、日期时间、字符串处理、内存管理，对于网络编程、GUI、数据库、并发等需要大量的第三方库或操作系统的功能来扩展 C 语言的功能（Java 语言、Go 语言等其他的现代化高级编程语言，都是直接将这些常见的开发场景内置到标准库中，开箱即用，极大的降低了软件开发的难度）。C 语言的第三方库也不是很多（和其它现代化高级编程语言相比），社区也不是很活跃（和其它现代化高级编程语言相比），更别提缺少自己的包管理器。

不过，现在 C 语言社区也开始诞生了一些包管理器，如：Conan 和 vcpkg ；也有自己的项目构建工具，如：cmake 、xmake 等。

NOTE

JavaScript 的作者 Brendan Eich（布兰登·艾奇） 曾经这么说：“与其说我爱 JavaScript，不如说我恨它。它是 C 语言和 Self 语言一夜情的产物（致敬 C 语言）。十八世纪英国文学家约翰逊博士说得好："它的优秀之处并非原创，它的原创之处并不优秀。"”

4.2 项目构建工具和包管理器 ​

4.2.1 概述 ​

  • 项目构建工具和包管理器在软件开发中扮演着不同的角色，它们虽然有时会有重叠的功能，但主要关注的点是不同的。

4.2.2 项目构建工具 ​

  • 项目构建工具是用于自动化编译、测试、打包、部署等一系列任务的软件工具。它们帮助开发者简化和管理整个软件开发生命周期中的各个步骤，尤其是在构建过程中的复杂性管理上。
  • 其功能有：
    • 编译代码：自动编译源代码（如 ：.java、.c 等）为可执行文件或中间文件（如：.class 文件）。
    • 运行测试：集成单元测试、集成测试，自动运行测试用例并生成报告。
    • 打包：将编译后的代码、依赖库、资源文件等打包成可分发的格式（如：JAR、WAR、可执行文件等）。
    • 依赖管理：自动下载、更新和管理项目所需的第三方库（这部分功能有时与包管理器重叠）。
    • 部署：将打包后的应用程序自动部署到测试环境、生产环境等。
    • 任务自动化：除了基本的构建流程外，还可以自动化执行一些常见任务，如：代码检查、文档生成等。
  • 常用的项目构建工具：
    • Maven（Java）：一个流行的构建工具和依赖管理工具，广泛用于 Java 项目。
    • Gradle（Java、Kotlin、Groovy）：一个灵活的构建工具，支持声明式的构建脚本和多种语言。
    • Make（C/C++）：一个经典的构建工具，使用 Makefile 来定义构建规则和依赖关系。
    • CMake（C/C++）：一个跨平台的构建系统，帮助生成标准的构建文件，如：Makefile 或 Visual Studio 项目文件。
    • ……

4.2.3 包管理器 ​

  • 包管理器是用于自动化安装、更新、配置和管理软件包及其依赖关系的工具。它主要关注于获取和管理项目所需的第三方库或工具包，并确保它们正确地集成到项目中。
  • 其功能有：
    • 依赖管理：根据项目配置文件（如：package.json、requirements.txt）自动下载和安装项目所需的依赖包。
    • 版本控制：管理包的版本，允许开发者指定某个特定版本或版本范围，确保项目中的库版本一致性。
    • 包的发布和共享：开发者可以通过包管理器发布自己的库，并且共享给社区或组织内部的其他项目使用。
    • 环境隔离：有些包管理器提供虚拟环境功能，可以将不同项目的依赖隔离开，避免版本冲突。
    • 更新和卸载：包管理器可以自动更新依赖包到最新的兼容版本或卸载不再需要的包。
  • 常见的包管理器：
    • npm（Node.js）：用于管理 JavaScript 和 Node.js 项目的包和模块。
    • pip（Python）：用于安装和管理 Python 的软件包。
    • Cargo（Rust）：Rust 编程语言的包管理器和构建工具。
    • Yarn（JavaScript）：是 npm 的替代品，提供更快和更可靠的包管理体验。
    • Homebrew（macOS）：用于 macOS 系统下的命令行工具和库的管理。
    • ……

4.2.3 注意事项 ​

  • 对于 Java 项目中的 Maven 或 Gradle 而言，其不仅是项目构建工具也是包管理工具。

NOTE

  • ① Gradle 也支持原生项目的开发，如：C 和 C++ 。
  • ② 不过，目前而言，业界开发 C/C++ 项目时，使用最多的项目构建工具和包管理器是 Cmake 和 Conan 。

第五章：附录 ​

5.1 嵌入式领域中的 C 语言 ​

5.1.1 概述 ​

  • C 语言在 C51、STM32 和 ARM 平台上的应用场景非常广泛，涵盖了各种嵌入式系统的开发需求。

5.1.2 C51（8051 系列微控制器） ​

  • 背景：8051 是由 Intel 于 1980 年设计的一种 8 位微控制器架构。它具有指令集简单、结构紧凑的特点，广泛应用于低端嵌入式系统中。
  • 开发工具：C51 是指针对 8051 系列微控制器的 C 语言编译器，如：Keil C51。这种编译器将 C 语言代码编译为适合 8051 架构的汇编代码。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 8051 微控制器上的应用使得开发更加高效和可维护。尽管 8051 的硬件资源有限，但 C 语言仍然能够在不损失性能的前提下提供高级编程的便利。
  • 应用场景：
    • 简单的控制系统：家用电器（微波炉、洗衣机、空调）的控制板等。这些设备通常不需要复杂的运算能力，但要求可靠和稳定的控制。
    • 低功耗传感器接口：C51 微控制器常用于低功耗传感器的数据采集和传输，如：温度、湿度、压力传感器。
    • 工业自动化设备：用于简单的工业自动化控制，如：小型电机驱动、工业传感器数据处理和传输。
    • 电子玩具：许多简单的电子玩具使用 8051 系列微控制器来控制声音、LED 灯光、显示屏等。

NOTE

总结：C51 微控制器适用于资源受限、需要低成本的简单控制系统，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发！！！

5.1.3 STM32（STM32 系列微控制器） ​

  • 背景：STM32 是意法半导体（STMicroelectronics）推出的一系列基于 ARM Cortex-M 内核的 32 位微控制器。它们广泛用于需要高性能和低功耗的嵌入式应用中，如：工业控制、消费电子和物联网设备。
  • 开发工具：开发 STM32 微控制器通常使用 Keil、IAR Embedded Workbench 或 STM32CubeIDE 等开发环境。这些环境中使用的编程语言主要是 C（有时也包括 C++）。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 STM32 上的应用非常广泛，开发者可以利用它直接控制硬件寄存器，同时也能方便地使用 STM32 提供的 HAL（硬件抽象层）库或 LL（低层）库进行开发。C 语言在这个平台上不仅能实现底层控制，还能编写复杂的应用逻辑。
  • 应用场景：
    • 物联网（IoT）设备：STM32 微控制器常用于各种物联网设备，如：智能家居控制系统、环境监测设备、可穿戴设备等。这些设备通常需要低功耗和强大的处理能力，并且需要支持多种通信协议，如：Wi-Fi、Bluetooth、LoRa。
    • 消费电子：智能手表、健身追踪器、电子书阅读器、无人机等，这些设备需要具备实时处理能力、低功耗和良好的外设支持。
    • 医疗设备：STM32 微控制器被广泛应用于便携式医疗设备中，如：血糖监测仪、心率监测器、便携式超声设备等，这些设备需要精确的传感器数据采集和处理。
    • 工业自动化控制：PLC（可编程逻辑控制器）、工业机器人、伺服电机控制等，STM32 能够处理复杂的控制算法和实时任务。
    • 汽车电子：用于汽车中的传感器管理、车载信息娱乐系统、车身控制系统（车窗、电动座椅调节等）。

NOTE

总结：STM32 微控制器在物联网、消费电子、医疗设备和工业控制等领域表现出色，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发，因为 C 语言允许直接进行硬件控制并支持复杂的应用开发。

5.1.3 ARM 架构（特别是 ARM Cortex 系列） ​

  • 背景：ARM 是一种广泛使用的处理器架构，特别是在嵌入式系统中，ARM Cortex 系列处理器（如 Cortex-M、Cortex-R 和 Cortex-A）非常流行。Cortex-M 系列主要用于微控制器，Cortex-R 用于实时系统，Cortex-A 则用于高性能嵌入式系统。
  • 开发工具：针对 ARM 架构的开发，常用工具包括 ARM Keil MDK、IAR、GCC for ARM 和 ARM Development Studio。这些工具均支持使用 C 语言进行开发。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 ARM 架构上的应用广泛。它被用于操作系统内核（如 FreeRTOS、Zephyr）、设备驱动、应用层逻辑等。在 ARM Cortex-M 和 Cortex-R 系列中，C 语言的高效性和低级别硬件访问能力是开发实时、低延迟系统的关键。
  • 应用场景：
    • 高级嵌入式操作系统：ARM Cortex-A 系列处理器广泛用于运行 Linux、Android 等操作系统的嵌入式设备，如：智能手机、平板电脑、智能电视和车载娱乐系统。
    • 实时系统：ARM Cortex-R 系列处理器用于实时系统，如：汽车的 ABS（防抱死制动系统）、ESC（电子稳定控制系统），以及航空电子设备，这些系统要求极低的延迟和高可靠性。
    • 高性能物联网网关：Cortex-A 系列处理器可以用来开发支持多协议、多设备管理的物联网网关，这些网关通常需要强大的计算能力和多线程处理能力。
    • 边缘计算设备：在边缘计算场景中，ARM Cortex-A 处理器用于执行本地数据处理和决策，如：视频分析、图像处理、语音识别等。
    • 智能家居设备：ARM Cortex-M 系列微控制器广泛应用于智能家居产品，如：智能灯泡、智能音箱、家庭安全系统，这些设备需要高效的处理能力和低功耗。
    • 机器人控制系统：ARM Cortex-M 和 Cortex-A 系列处理器用于机器人系统的控制和通信，如：无人机、工业机器人、服务机器人等，处理复杂的运动控制、路径规划和传感器数据融合。

NOTE

总结：ARM Cortex 系列适用于从实时系统到高级嵌入式操作系统的各类应用，支持从低功耗控制到高性能计算的多种需求，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发，因为 C 语言不仅用于控制硬件，还广泛应用于操作系统和应用程序的开发。

5.2 C 和 C++ 的关系 ​

  • 起源和发展：

    • C 语言：C 语言由丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）在 1972 年开发，最初用于开发操作系统，特别是 UNIX。它是一种结构化的编程语言，提供了对硬件的低级访问，且效率高，因此在系统编程中广泛使用。
    • C++ 语言：C++ 由比雅尼·斯特劳斯特鲁普（Bjarne Stroustrup）在 20 世纪 80 年代初开发，作为 C 语言的扩展。它引入了面向对象编程的概念，同时保留了 C 语言的高效性和底层操作能力。C++ 最初被称为 “C with Classes”（带类的 C），后来发展成一种独立的编程语言。

  • 兼容型：

    • 语法兼容：C++ 几乎完全兼容 C 语言的语法，这意味着大多数 C 代码可以在 C++ 编译器下直接编译运行。C++ 可以看作是 C 语言的超集（虽然不完全是 100% 兼容，但差异较少）。
    • 扩展性：C++ 在 C 的基础上增加了许多新特性，如：类和对象、继承、多态、模板和异常处理等。这使得 C++ 不仅适合系统编程，还可以用于开发复杂的应用程序。

  • 编程范式：

    • C 语言：主要是面向过程编程，强调的是函数调用和控制结构。
    • C++ 语言：支持多种编程范式，包括：面向过程、面向对象和泛型编程，使得开发者可以更灵活地选择适合的编程风格。

  • 性能与应用：

    • 性能：由于 C++ 包含了更多的高级特性，它的编译时间和运行时开销可能比 C 稍高。但得益于其优化机制，C++ 仍然可以实现与 C 语言相近的性能。
    • 应用场景：C 语言仍然在嵌入式系统、驱动程序开发和其他对性能要求极高的场合中占据重要地位。而 C++ 则被广泛用于游戏开发、图形处理、大型软件系统等需要复杂结构和抽象的领域。

NOTE

总结：C++ 是 C 语言的继承者和扩展，它保留了 C 语言的优势，并引入了更多现代编程语言的特性，使得它在更广泛的应用领域中得到应用。

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学习手法就这么几种：缓存、索引、信号/事件、回调/消息循环/dispatcher、……

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  • 所以，对于 CPU 来说，这个世界真的是太慢了！！！
  • 其实，中国古代中的文人，通常以蜉蝣来表示时间的短暂（和其他生物的寿命比），也是类似的道理，即：
txt
鹤寿千岁，以极其游，蜉蝣朝生而暮死，尽其乐，盖其旦暮为期，远不过三日尔。
 	                                        --- 出自 西汉淮南王刘安《淮南子》
txt
寄蜉蝣于天地，渺沧海之一粟。 哀吾生之须臾，羡长江之无穷。 
 挟飞仙以遨游，抱明月而长终。 知不可乎骤得，托遗响于悲风。
-	                                        --- 出自 苏轼《赤壁赋》

NOTE

对于蜉蝣来说，从早到晚就是一生；而对于我们人类而言，却仅仅只是一天。

  • 存储器的层次结构（CPU 中也有存储器，即：寄存器、高速缓存 L1、L2 和 L3），如下所示：

img

NOTE

上图以层次化的方式，展示了价格信息，揭示了一个真理，即：鱼和熊掌不可兼得。

  • ① 存储器越往上速度越快，但是价格越来越贵， 越往下速度越慢，但是价格越来越便宜。
  • ② 正是由于计算机各个部件的速度不同，容量不同，价格不同，导致了计算机系统/编程中的各种问题以及相应的解决方案。

总结：CPU 都是直接和内存打交道的，即：CPU 会直接从内存中读取数据，待数据处理完毕之后，会将结果再次写入到内存中；如果需要将数据持久化（永久）保存（内存是易失性存储器，内存中的数据是以电荷形式存储在存储单元中的。当计算机关闭或断电时，这些电荷很快消散，导致存储在内存中的数据丢失），那么就需要将内存中的数据再刷新到磁盘或硬盘上，即：落盘。

1.4 计算机软件 ​

1.4.1 操作系统的来源 ​

  • 在上古时期，硬件资源不够丰富，计算机设计的也非常简陋。那个时候，很多应用程序都是直接跑在硬件上的，即：一个计算机只能跑一个应用程序。

  • 随着技术的发展，硬件越来越丰富，功能也越来越强大，性能也越来越好。这种情况下，如果一台计算机只能跑一个程序，实在是太浪费了。而且，底层硬件不断丰富，应用程序需要对接的硬件也将越来越多，如果每个应用程序都这么干，不显示工作很重复吗？于是，操作系统应运而生了。

  • 操作系统的功能：
    • 硬件驱动。
    • 进程管理。
    • 内存管理。
    • 网络管理。
    • 安全管理。
    • 文件管理。
  • 那么，操作系统的作用，就是这样的，即：
    • 对下，管理计算机的硬件资源。
    • 对上，提供使用计算机资源的操作方式，有：
      • 系统调用：是一套已经写好的代码接口，应用程序通过调用这些接口来请求操作系统执行特定的硬件操作。它们直接与硬件交互，提供底层功能支持，如：文件操作、进程管理、内存管理等。开发者通过系统调用可以实现对底层资源的直接控制，确保程序能够高效、安全地运行。
      • 终端命令：是一种文本命令接口，通过命令行输入各种指令来控制操作系统和软件的行为。终端命令可以执行文件操作、系统配置、网络管理等各种任务。主要针对开发人员和高级用户，他们通过命令行可以快速、精确地完成各种操作，提高工作效率。
      • 图形用户界面（GUI）是通过图形元素（如：窗口、图标、按钮等）与用户进行交互的界面。供直观、易用的操作方式，使用户能够通过鼠标点击、拖拽等简单操作完成复杂任务。主要面向普通用户，降低了计算机操作的门槛，提高了用户体验和工作效率。

1.4.2 用户态和内核态 ​

  • 在现代操作系统中，用户态（User Mode）和内核态（Kernel Mode）是两种不同的执行模式，它们对系统资源的访问权限有着本质的区别。这种区分是为了提供一个稳定和安全的运行环境，防止用户程序直接操作硬件设备和关键的系统资源，从而可能引起系统的不稳定或安全问题。

  • 核态（Kernel Mode） VS 用户态（User Mode）：
类型内核态（Kernel Mode）用户态（User Mode）
权限内核态是操作系统代码运行的模式，拥有访问系统全部资源和执行硬件操作的最高权限。在这种模式下，操作系统的核心部分可以直接访问内存、硬件设备控制、管理文件系统和网络通信等。用户态是普通应用程序运行的模式，具有较低的系统资源访问权限。在用户态，程序不能直接执行硬件操作，必须通过操作系统提供的接口（即系统调用）来请求服务。
安全性由于内核态具有如此高的权限，因此只有可信的、经过严格审查的操作系统核心组件才被允许在此模式下运行。这样可以保护系统不被恶意软件破坏。用户态为系统提供了一层保护，确保用户程序不能直接访问关键的系统资源，防止系统崩溃和数据泄露。
功能内核态提供了系统调用的接口，允许用户态程序安全地请求使用操作系统提供的服务，比如：文件操作、网络通信、内存管理等。用户态保证了操作系统的稳定性和安全性，同时也使得多个程序可以在相互隔离的环境中同时运行，避免相互干扰。

NOTE

  • ① 操作系统通过用户态和内核态的分离，实现了对系统资源的保护和控制。
  • ② 当用户程序需要进行文件读写、网络通信或其他需要操作系统介入的操作时，会发生从用户态到内核态的切换。这通过系统调用（System Call）实现，系统调用是用户程序与操作系统内核通信的桥梁。
  • ③ 执行完毕后，系统从内核态返回用户态，继续执行用户程序。
  • ④ 用户态和内核态的这种分离设计是现代操作系统中实现安全、稳定运行的关键机制之一。
  • 示例：
java
import java.io.IOException;
+	                                        --- 出自 苏轼《赤壁赋》

NOTE

对于蜉蝣来说，从早到晚就是一生；而对于我们人类而言，却仅仅只是一天。

  • 存储器的层次结构（CPU 中也有存储器，即：寄存器、高速缓存 L1、L2 和 L3），如下所示：

img

NOTE

上图以层次化的方式，展示了价格信息，揭示了一个真理，即：鱼和熊掌不可兼得。

  • ① 存储器越往上速度越快，但是价格越来越贵， 越往下速度越慢，但是价格越来越便宜。
  • ② 正是由于计算机各个部件的速度不同，容量不同，价格不同，导致了计算机系统/编程中的各种问题以及相应的解决方案。

IMPORTANT

总结：CPU 都是直接和内存打交道的，即：CPU 会直接从内存中读取数据，待数据处理完毕之后，会将结果再次写入到内存中；如果需要将数据持久化（永久）保存（内存是易失性存储器，内存中的数据是以电荷形式存储在存储单元中的。当计算机关闭或断电时，这些电荷很快消散，导致存储在内存中的数据丢失），那么就需要将内存中的数据再刷新到磁盘或硬盘上，即：落盘。

1.4 计算机软件 ​

1.4.1 操作系统的来源 ​

  • 在上古时期，硬件资源不够丰富，计算机设计的也非常简陋。那个时候，很多应用程序都是直接跑在硬件上的，即：一个计算机只能跑一个应用程序。

  • 随着技术的发展，硬件越来越丰富，功能也越来越强大，性能也越来越好。这种情况下，如果一台计算机只能跑一个程序，实在是太浪费了。而且，底层硬件不断丰富，应用程序需要对接的硬件也将越来越多，如果每个应用程序都这么干，不显示工作很重复吗？于是，操作系统应运而生了。

  • 操作系统的功能：
    • 硬件驱动。
    • 进程管理。
    • 内存管理。
    • 网络管理。
    • 安全管理。
    • 文件管理。
  • 那么，操作系统的作用，就是这样的，即：
    • 对下，管理计算机的硬件资源。
    • 对上，提供使用计算机资源的操作方式，有：
      • 系统调用：是一套已经写好的代码接口，应用程序通过调用这些接口来请求操作系统执行特定的硬件操作。它们直接与硬件交互，提供底层功能支持，如：文件操作、进程管理、内存管理等。开发者通过系统调用可以实现对底层资源的直接控制，确保程序能够高效、安全地运行。
      • 终端命令：是一种文本命令接口，通过命令行输入各种指令来控制操作系统和软件的行为。终端命令可以执行文件操作、系统配置、网络管理等各种任务。主要针对开发人员和高级用户，他们通过命令行可以快速、精确地完成各种操作，提高工作效率。
      • 图形用户界面（GUI）是通过图形元素（如：窗口、图标、按钮等）与用户进行交互的界面。供直观、易用的操作方式，使用户能够通过鼠标点击、拖拽等简单操作完成复杂任务。主要面向普通用户，降低了计算机操作的门槛，提高了用户体验和工作效率。

1.4.2 用户态和内核态 ​

  • 在现代操作系统中，用户态（User Mode）和内核态（Kernel Mode）是两种不同的执行模式，它们对系统资源的访问权限有着本质的区别。这种区分是为了提供一个稳定和安全的运行环境，防止用户程序直接操作硬件设备和关键的系统资源，从而可能引起系统的不稳定或安全问题。

  • 核态（Kernel Mode） VS 用户态（User Mode）：
类型内核态（Kernel Mode）用户态（User Mode）
权限内核态是操作系统代码运行的模式，拥有访问系统全部资源和执行硬件操作的最高权限。在这种模式下，操作系统的核心部分可以直接访问内存、硬件设备控制、管理文件系统和网络通信等。用户态是普通应用程序运行的模式，具有较低的系统资源访问权限。在用户态，程序不能直接执行硬件操作，必须通过操作系统提供的接口（即系统调用）来请求服务。
安全性由于内核态具有如此高的权限，因此只有可信的、经过严格审查的操作系统核心组件才被允许在此模式下运行。这样可以保护系统不被恶意软件破坏。用户态为系统提供了一层保护，确保用户程序不能直接访问关键的系统资源，防止系统崩溃和数据泄露。
功能内核态提供了系统调用的接口，允许用户态程序安全地请求使用操作系统提供的服务，比如：文件操作、网络通信、内存管理等。用户态保证了操作系统的稳定性和安全性，同时也使得多个程序可以在相互隔离的环境中同时运行，避免相互干扰。

NOTE

  • ① 操作系统通过用户态和内核态的分离，实现了对系统资源的保护和控制。
  • ② 当用户程序需要进行文件读写、网络通信或其他需要操作系统介入的操作时，会发生从用户态到内核态的切换。这通过系统调用（System Call）实现，系统调用是用户程序与操作系统内核通信的桥梁。
  • ③ 执行完毕后，系统从内核态返回用户态，继续执行用户程序。
  • ④ 用户态和内核态的这种分离设计是现代操作系统中实现安全、稳定运行的关键机制之一。
  • 示例：
java
import java.io.IOException;
 import java.nio.file.Files;
 import java.nio.file.Path;
 import java.nio.file.Paths;
@@ -66,8 +66,8 @@
     return 0;  // 函数执行完毕时返回函数值0
 }
  • 编程语言就是用于控制计算机，让其完成我们需要的功能。而我们学习编程语言，其实就是学习这些文字和符号编写的规则。
  • 因为 CPU 只能识别二进制的指令，而我们编写的程序叫做源代码，是人类能看懂；但是，计算机却不能识别。那么，我们就需要让计算机能识别我们编写的源程序，就需要将我们编写的源代码交给编译器程序，其会帮助我们将所编写的源代码转换为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。

NOTE

编译器就是运行在操作系统之上的程序，其作用就是用来将程序员编写的源代码转换为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。

  • 如果我们用 Java 语言编写了程序（源代码），那么编写的程序也是不能直接运行的，需要通过 Java 语言的编译器将 Java 程序编译为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
  • 如果我们用 Python 语言编写了程序（源代码），那么编写的程序也是不能直接运行的，需要通过 Python 语言的编译器将 Python 程序编译为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
  • ……
  • 总而言之，无论我们学习任何一门编程语言，想要将程序运行起来，都必须做如下的两件事情：
    • ① 学习该语言的文字和符号编写的规则，即：语法规则。
    • ② 需要在操作系统上安装对应编程语言的编译器程序，将源程序编译为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。

2.3 计算机语言简史 ​

2.3.1 机器语言（相当于人类的石器时代） ​

  • 1946 年 2 月 14 日，世界上第一台计算机 ENIAC 诞生，使用的是最原始的穿透卡片。

  • 这种卡片使用的是用二进制代码表示的语言，和人类语言差别极大，这种语言就称为机器语言，如：
txt
0000,0000,000000010000 代表 LOAD A, 16
 0000,0001,000000000001 代表 LOAD B, 1
-0001,0001,000000010000 代表 STORE B, 16
  • 这种语言本质上是计算机能识别的唯一语言，人类很难理解；换言之，当时的程序员 99.9% 都是异类！！！

IMPORTANT

  • ① 不同类型（CPU 架构，如：x86_64、arm 等）的处理器有不同的机器语言指令集，指令集架构（ISA）决定了机器语言的具体形式。
  • ② 换言之，机器语言与特定硬件架构紧密相关，机器语言程序几乎没有可移植性。

2.3.2 汇编语言（相当于人类的青铜&铁器时代） ​

  • 汇编语言使用助记符（如：MOV、ADD、SUB）代替二进制操作码，使程序更易于人类编写和理解；因此，汇编语言也被称为符号语言。

  • 汇编语言的优点是能编写高效率的程序；但是，缺点和机器语言没什么不同，汇编语言同样依赖于具体的计算机架构（面向机器），程序不具备跨平台的可移植性。

NOTE

  • ① 汇编语言，目前仍然应用于工业电子编程领域、软件的加密解密、计算机病毒分析等。
  • ② 汇编语言是编程语言的拓荒年代，它非常底层，直接和计算机硬件打交道，开发效率低，学习成本高。

2.3.3 高级语言（相当于人类的信息时代） ​

  • 高级语言是一种接近于人们使用习惯的程序设计语言。它允许程序员使用接近日常英语的指令来编写程序，程序中的符号和算式也和日常使用的数学公式差不多，接近于自然语言和数学语言，容易被人们掌握。

  • 高级语言独立于计算机硬件，有一定的通用性；计算机不能直接识别和执行用高级语言编写的程序，需要使用编译器或解释器转换为机器语言，才能被计算机识别和执行。

NOTE

  • ① 普遍使用的高级编程语言，有：C、C++、Java、Python、C#、JavaScript、Go、SQL 等。
  • ② C 语言是“面向过程”的编程语言，已经脱离了计算机硬件，可以用来设计和开发中等规模的程序。
  • ③ Java、C++、Python、C# 等都是“面向对象”的编程语言（它们在“面向过程”的基础上又增加了很多概念），可以用来设计和开发中大型规模的程序。

总结：C 语言出现的时候，已经度过了编程语言的拓荒年代，具备了现代编程语言的特性，但是这个时候还没有出现“软件危机”，人们没有动力去开发更加高级的语言，所以也没有太复杂的编程思想；而之后出现的“面向对象”的编程思想解决了一部分在“软件危机”上的窘境。

2.3.4 总结 ​

  • 编写语言的对比，如下所示：
类别特征优点缺点示例
机器语言直接由计算机执行的二进制代码执行速度快编写困难，可读性差，与具体硬件强绑定二进制代码
汇编语言用助记符代替二进制代码的低级语言相对机器语言更易编写和理解，允许直接控制硬件资源依然需要了解硬件，不够抽象，与具体硬件或平台相关MOV，ADD 等助记符
高级语言接近人类语言，提供了更高层次的抽象易于编写和维护，可移植性好，支持多种编程范式需要通过编译器或解释器转换为机器语言，可能存在一定的性能损失C，Java， Python 等

NOTE

  • ① 这三种编程语言类型从低级到高级提供了不同层次的抽象，以满足不同的编程需求和场景。
  • ② 随着计算机科学的发展，高级语言因其强大的表达能力、良好的可移植性和易用性，成为了日常软件开发的主流选择。

第三章：初识 C 语言 ​

3.1 C 语言的由来 ​

  • 1969 年，美国贝尔实验室的肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson）和丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）一起开发了 Unix 操作系统。Unix 最初是使用汇编语言编写的，依赖于计算机硬件。为了程序的可读性和可移植性，它们决定使用高级语言重写。但是。当时的高级语言无法满足他们的要求，肯·汤姆森就在 BCPL 语言的基础上发明了 B 语言。
  • 1972 年，丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）在 B 语言的基础上重新设计了一种新的语言，这种新语言取代了 B 语言，即 C 语言。

  • 1973 年，整个 Unix 系统都使用 C 语言重写。

NOTE

C 语言最初是作为 Unix 系统的开发工具而发明的。

  • 此后，这种语言快速流传，广泛用于各种操作系统和系统软件的开发，如：Unix、MS-DOS、Microsoft Windows 以及 Linux 等。

  • 1988 年，美国国家标准协会（ANSI）正式将 C 语言标准化，标志着 C 语言开始稳定和规范化。

3.2 为什么要学习 C 语言？ ​

  • ① C 语言具有可移植好、跨平台的特点：用 C 语言编写的代码可以在不同的操作系统和硬件平台上编译和运行。

NOTE

  • ① C 语言的最原始的设计目的，就是为了将 Unix 操作系统移植到其他的计算机架构上，这使得它从一开始就非常注重可移植性。
  • ② 这边所说的 C 语言的可移植性，是和汇编语言相比的；如果 C 语言和现代化的高级编程语言相比，可移植性还是很差的，如：Java 的口号是“一次编译，到处运行”，Go 的口号是“一次编译，到处执行”。
  • ② C 语言在许多领域应用广泛。
    • 操作系统：C 广泛用于开发操作系统，如：Unix、Linux 和 Windows。
    • 嵌入式系统：C 是一种用于开发嵌入式系统（如：微控制器、微处理器和其它电子设备）的流程语言。
    • 系统软件：C 用于开发设备驱动程序、编译器和汇编器等系统软件。
    • 网络：C 语言广泛用于开发网络应用程序，例如：Web 服务器、网络协议和网络驱动程序。
    • 数据库系统：C 用于开发数据库系统，例如：Oracle、MySQL 和 PostgreSQL 。
    • 游戏：由于 C 能够处理低级硬件交互，因此经常用于开发计算机游戏。
    • 人工智能：C 用于开发人工智能和机器学习的应用程序，例如：神经网络和深度学习算法。
    • 科学应用：C 用于开发科学应用程序，例如：仿真软件和数值分析工具。
    • 金融应用：C 用于开发股票市场分析和交易系统等金融应用。
  • ③ C 语言能够直接对硬件进行操作、管理内存以及和操作系统对话，这使得它是一种非常接近底层的语言，非常适合写需要和硬件交互、有极高性能要求的程序。

NOTE

  • C 语言毕竟诞生的时间非常早（20 世纪 70 年代），属于 70 后了，有点落后于现在的时代，虽然执行效率高，但是开发效率低。
  • 随着时间的推移，人们在 C 语言的基础上增加了面向对象的机制（软件危机），形成了一门新的编程语言，它的名字是 C++ 。
  • 但是，C++ 的特性实在是太多了（因为 C++ 兼容 C，并增加了很多自己独有的特性，可以是当今最复杂的编程语言，没有之一），于是人们在 C++ 的基础上，删减了一些非必要的特性，就形成了 Java 和 C# ，也可以认为 Java 和 C# 是 C++--。
  • 当然，近年来，Go 语言也很火，它的设计者之一就是 Unix 操作系统的的开发者肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson），Go 诞生的背景据说是肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson）在 C++ 委员会在为其演讲 C++ 新特性的时候，觉得 C++ 新特性太多太复杂，于是就开发了 Go 语言；所以，Go 语言中有很多 C 语言的身影。
  • 其实，在 C 语言之后的许多编程语言，或多或少都参考了 C 语言；所以，编程界流传了一句话：汇编生 C ，C 生万物。
  • ④ 学习 C 语言有助于快速上手其他编程语言，如：C++（原先是 C 语言的一个扩展，在 C 语言的基础上嫁接了面向对象编程思想）、C#、Java 等，这些语言都继承或深受 C 语言的影响和启发。
  • ⑤ C 语言长盛不衰。C 语言至今，依然是最广泛使用、最流行的编程语言之一，包括很多大学将 C 语言作为计算机教学的入门语言，拥有庞大而活跃的用户社区，这意味着有许多资源和库可供开发人员使用。

3.3 计算机语言排行榜 ​

  • TIOBE 是一个流行编程语言排行，每月更新。排名权重基于世界范围内工程师数量，Google、Bing、Yahoo! 、Wikipedia、Amazon、Youtube 和百度这些主流的搜索引擎，也将作为排名权重的参考指标。

  • 计算机语言走势图：

3.4 C 语言的版本选择 ​

  • 随着微型计算机的日益普及，出现了许多 C 语言版本（标准）：

    • 版本 1（K＆R C）：K&R C 指的是 C 语言的原始版本。1978年，C 语言的发明者布莱恩·柯林（Brian Kernighan）和丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）合写了一本著名的教材《C 编程语言》（The C programming language）。

    NOTE

    由于 C 语言还没有成文的语法标准，这本书就成了公认标准，以两位作者的姓氏首字母作为版本简称 “K&R C”。

    • 版本 2（ANSI C，又称 C89 或 C90）：C 语言的原始版本非常简单，对很多情况的描述非常模糊，加上 C 语法依然在快速发展，要求将 C 语言标准化的呼声越来越高。1989 年，美国国家标准协会（ANSI）制定了一套 C 语言标准，并于次年被国际标准化组织（ISO）通过。它被称为 “ANSI C”，也可以按照发布年份，称为 “C89 或 C90”。

    • 版本 3（C99）：C 语言标准的第一次大型修订，发生在 1999 年，增加了许多语言特性，比如：双斜杠（ // ）的注释语法，可变长度数组、灵活的数组成员、复数、内联函数和指定的初始值设定项，这个版本称为 C99，是目前最流行的 C 版本。

    • 版本 4（C11）：2011 年，标准化组织再一次对 C 语言进行修订，增加了_Generic、static_assert 和原子类型限定符。这个版本称为 C11。

    NOTE

    需要强调的是，修订标准的原因并不是因为原标准不能用，而是需要跟进新的技术。

    • 版本 5（C17）：C11 标准在 2017 年进行了修补，但发布是在 2018 年。新版本只是解决了 C11 的一些缺陷，没有引入任何新功能。这个版本称为 C17。
    • 版本 6（C23）：2023 年发布，计划进一步增强安全性，消除实现定义的行为，引入模块化语言概念等新特性，使 C 语言在安全和可靠性方面有重大提高。
    • ……

第四章：C 语言的学习技巧 ​

4.1 如何学习 C 语言？ ​

  • 对于大部分的初学者， 学习 C 语言的目的可能是为了成为一名合格的程序员，开发出优秀的软件。但是，在学习了 C 语言的基本语法后，却发现只能在控制台（黑底白字）上玩玩，没有漂亮的用户界面以及人性化的交互。于是，开始学习数据结构、算法、数据库、操作系统，越陷越深，越来越迷茫，不知道学习 C 语言能做什么，认为学习编程很难，开始怀疑自己，直到放弃！！！
  • 其实，C 语言本身就是一门非常简单的语言，提供的实用功能不多，大部分的时候需要借助操作系统、第三方库以及以及一些硬件才能发挥它的威力！！！

IMPORTANT

  • ① 学习 C 语言仅仅是让你踏上程序员之路的第一步而已，只学习 C 语言也做不了什么。
  • ② 系统、扎实的学习 C 语言可以让你了解底层硬件、一些简单的数据结构和算法，并培养计算机思维。
  • C 语言是一门通用性的语言，并没有针对某个领域进行优化，在实际项目中，C 语言主要用于比较底层的开发，例如：
    • Windows、Linux、Unix 等操作系统的内核 90% 以上都使用 C 语言开发（Rust 语言有望未来，在操作系统开发中占据一席之地，特别是在对安全性和性能要求极高的领域）。
    • 开发硬件驱动，让硬件和操作系统连接起来，这样用户才能更有效的使用硬件。
    • 单片机和嵌入式属于软硬件的结合，是使用 C 语言最多的地方。
    • 开发系统组件或服务，用于支撑上层应用。
    • ……
  • 貌似感觉 C 语言的应用还是很多的啊，那为什么感觉学习 C 语言还是做不了什么？原因除了 C 语言通常都是开发最底层的应用之外，最重要的一点就是生态。

IMPORTANT

现代化的高级编程语言的流行程度，除了和编程语言的设计是否优秀有关，最主要的原因就是生态。

  • ① 很多编程语言都自带标准库（语言本身提供的，开箱即用），如：Java、Go 等。
  • ② 很多编程语言都有自己的包管理器（用于管理第三方库）解决方案，如：Java 中的 Maven、Gradle、Go 中的 go modules ，JavaScript 的 npm 等。

遗憾的是，C 语言的标准库非常简单，只有输入输出、文件操作、日期时间、字符串处理、内存管理，对于网络编程、GUI、数据库、并发等需要大量的第三方库或操作系统的功能来扩展 C 语言的功能（Java 语言、Go 语言等其他的现代化高级编程语言，都是直接将这些常见的开发场景内置到标准库中，开箱即用，极大的降低了软件开发的难度）。C 语言的第三方库也不是很多（和其它现代化高级编程语言相比），社区也不是很活跃（和其它现代化高级编程语言相比），更别提缺少自己的包管理器。

不过，现在 C 语言社区也开始诞生了一些包管理器，如：Conan 和 vcpkg ；也有自己的项目构建工具，如：cmake 、xmake 等。

NOTE

JavaScript 的作者 Brendan Eich（布兰登·艾奇） 曾经这么说：“与其说我爱 JavaScript，不如说我恨它。它是 C 语言和 Self 语言一夜情的产物（致敬 C 语言）。十八世纪英国文学家约翰逊博士说得好："它的优秀之处并非原创，它的原创之处并不优秀。"”

4.2 项目构建工具和包管理器 ​

4.2.1 概述 ​

  • 项目构建工具和包管理器在软件开发中扮演着不同的角色，它们虽然有时会有重叠的功能，但主要关注的点是不同的。

4.2.2 项目构建工具 ​

  • 项目构建工具是用于自动化编译、测试、打包、部署等一系列任务的软件工具。它们帮助开发者简化和管理整个软件开发生命周期中的各个步骤，尤其是在构建过程中的复杂性管理上。
  • 其功能有：
    • 编译代码：自动编译源代码（如 ：.java、.c 等）为可执行文件或中间文件（如：.class 文件）。
    • 运行测试：集成单元测试、集成测试，自动运行测试用例并生成报告。
    • 打包：将编译后的代码、依赖库、资源文件等打包成可分发的格式（如：JAR、WAR、可执行文件等）。
    • 依赖管理：自动下载、更新和管理项目所需的第三方库（这部分功能有时与包管理器重叠）。
    • 部署：将打包后的应用程序自动部署到测试环境、生产环境等。
    • 任务自动化：除了基本的构建流程外，还可以自动化执行一些常见任务，如：代码检查、文档生成等。
  • 常用的项目构建工具：
    • Maven（Java）：一个流行的构建工具和依赖管理工具，广泛用于 Java 项目。
    • Gradle（Java、Kotlin、Groovy）：一个灵活的构建工具，支持声明式的构建脚本和多种语言。
    • Make（C/C++）：一个经典的构建工具，使用 Makefile 来定义构建规则和依赖关系。
    • CMake（C/C++）：一个跨平台的构建系统，帮助生成标准的构建文件，如：Makefile 或 Visual Studio 项目文件。
    • ……

4.2.3 包管理器 ​

  • 包管理器是用于自动化安装、更新、配置和管理软件包及其依赖关系的工具。它主要关注于获取和管理项目所需的第三方库或工具包，并确保它们正确地集成到项目中。
  • 其功能有：
    • 依赖管理：根据项目配置文件（如：package.json、requirements.txt）自动下载和安装项目所需的依赖包。
    • 版本控制：管理包的版本，允许开发者指定某个特定版本或版本范围，确保项目中的库版本一致性。
    • 包的发布和共享：开发者可以通过包管理器发布自己的库，并且共享给社区或组织内部的其他项目使用。
    • 环境隔离：有些包管理器提供虚拟环境功能，可以将不同项目的依赖隔离开，避免版本冲突。
    • 更新和卸载：包管理器可以自动更新依赖包到最新的兼容版本或卸载不再需要的包。
  • 常见的包管理器：
    • npm（Node.js）：用于管理 JavaScript 和 Node.js 项目的包和模块。
    • pip（Python）：用于安装和管理 Python 的软件包。
    • Cargo（Rust）：Rust 编程语言的包管理器和构建工具。
    • Yarn（JavaScript）：是 npm 的替代品，提供更快和更可靠的包管理体验。
    • Homebrew（macOS）：用于 macOS 系统下的命令行工具和库的管理。
    • ……

4.2.3 注意事项 ​

  • 对于 Java 项目中的 Maven 或 Gradle 而言，其不仅是项目构建工具也是包管理工具。

NOTE

  • ① Gradle 也支持原生项目的开发，如：C 和 C++ 。
  • ② 不过，目前而言，业界开发 C/C++ 项目时，使用最多的项目构建工具和包管理器是 Cmake 和 Conan 。

第五章：附录 ​

5.1 嵌入式领域中的 C 语言 ​

5.1.1 概述 ​

  • C 语言在 C51、STM32 和 ARM 平台上的应用场景非常广泛，涵盖了各种嵌入式系统的开发需求。

5.1.2 C51（8051 系列微控制器） ​

  • 背景：8051 是由 Intel 于 1980 年设计的一种 8 位微控制器架构。它具有指令集简单、结构紧凑的特点，广泛应用于低端嵌入式系统中。
  • 开发工具：C51 是指针对 8051 系列微控制器的 C 语言编译器，如：Keil C51。这种编译器将 C 语言代码编译为适合 8051 架构的汇编代码。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 8051 微控制器上的应用使得开发更加高效和可维护。尽管 8051 的硬件资源有限，但 C 语言仍然能够在不损失性能的前提下提供高级编程的便利。
  • 应用场景：
    • 简单的控制系统：家用电器（微波炉、洗衣机、空调）的控制板等。这些设备通常不需要复杂的运算能力，但要求可靠和稳定的控制。
    • 低功耗传感器接口：C51 微控制器常用于低功耗传感器的数据采集和传输，如：温度、湿度、压力传感器。
    • 工业自动化设备：用于简单的工业自动化控制，如：小型电机驱动、工业传感器数据处理和传输。
    • 电子玩具：许多简单的电子玩具使用 8051 系列微控制器来控制声音、LED 灯光、显示屏等。

NOTE

总结：C51 微控制器适用于资源受限、需要低成本的简单控制系统，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发！！！

5.1.3 STM32（STM32 系列微控制器） ​

  • 背景：STM32 是意法半导体（STMicroelectronics）推出的一系列基于 ARM Cortex-M 内核的 32 位微控制器。它们广泛用于需要高性能和低功耗的嵌入式应用中，如：工业控制、消费电子和物联网设备。
  • 开发工具：开发 STM32 微控制器通常使用 Keil、IAR Embedded Workbench 或 STM32CubeIDE 等开发环境。这些环境中使用的编程语言主要是 C（有时也包括 C++）。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 STM32 上的应用非常广泛，开发者可以利用它直接控制硬件寄存器，同时也能方便地使用 STM32 提供的 HAL（硬件抽象层）库或 LL（低层）库进行开发。C 语言在这个平台上不仅能实现底层控制，还能编写复杂的应用逻辑。
  • 应用场景：
    • 物联网（IoT）设备：STM32 微控制器常用于各种物联网设备，如：智能家居控制系统、环境监测设备、可穿戴设备等。这些设备通常需要低功耗和强大的处理能力，并且需要支持多种通信协议，如：Wi-Fi、Bluetooth、LoRa。
    • 消费电子：智能手表、健身追踪器、电子书阅读器、无人机等，这些设备需要具备实时处理能力、低功耗和良好的外设支持。
    • 医疗设备：STM32 微控制器被广泛应用于便携式医疗设备中，如：血糖监测仪、心率监测器、便携式超声设备等，这些设备需要精确的传感器数据采集和处理。
    • 工业自动化控制：PLC（可编程逻辑控制器）、工业机器人、伺服电机控制等，STM32 能够处理复杂的控制算法和实时任务。
    • 汽车电子：用于汽车中的传感器管理、车载信息娱乐系统、车身控制系统（车窗、电动座椅调节等）。

NOTE

总结：STM32 微控制器在物联网、消费电子、医疗设备和工业控制等领域表现出色，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发，因为 C 语言允许直接进行硬件控制并支持复杂的应用开发。

5.1.3 ARM 架构（特别是 ARM Cortex 系列） ​

  • 背景：ARM 是一种广泛使用的处理器架构，特别是在嵌入式系统中，ARM Cortex 系列处理器（如 Cortex-M、Cortex-R 和 Cortex-A）非常流行。Cortex-M 系列主要用于微控制器，Cortex-R 用于实时系统，Cortex-A 则用于高性能嵌入式系统。
  • 开发工具：针对 ARM 架构的开发，常用工具包括 ARM Keil MDK、IAR、GCC for ARM 和 ARM Development Studio。这些工具均支持使用 C 语言进行开发。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 ARM 架构上的应用广泛。它被用于操作系统内核（如 FreeRTOS、Zephyr）、设备驱动、应用层逻辑等。在 ARM Cortex-M 和 Cortex-R 系列中，C 语言的高效性和低级别硬件访问能力是开发实时、低延迟系统的关键。
  • 应用场景：
    • 高级嵌入式操作系统：ARM Cortex-A 系列处理器广泛用于运行 Linux、Android 等操作系统的嵌入式设备，如：智能手机、平板电脑、智能电视和车载娱乐系统。
    • 实时系统：ARM Cortex-R 系列处理器用于实时系统，如：汽车的 ABS（防抱死制动系统）、ESC（电子稳定控制系统），以及航空电子设备，这些系统要求极低的延迟和高可靠性。
    • 高性能物联网网关：Cortex-A 系列处理器可以用来开发支持多协议、多设备管理的物联网网关，这些网关通常需要强大的计算能力和多线程处理能力。
    • 边缘计算设备：在边缘计算场景中，ARM Cortex-A 处理器用于执行本地数据处理和决策，如：视频分析、图像处理、语音识别等。
    • 智能家居设备：ARM Cortex-M 系列微控制器广泛应用于智能家居产品，如：智能灯泡、智能音箱、家庭安全系统，这些设备需要高效的处理能力和低功耗。
    • 机器人控制系统：ARM Cortex-M 和 Cortex-A 系列处理器用于机器人系统的控制和通信，如：无人机、工业机器人、服务机器人等，处理复杂的运动控制、路径规划和传感器数据融合。

NOTE

总结：ARM Cortex 系列适用于从实时系统到高级嵌入式操作系统的各类应用，支持从低功耗控制到高性能计算的多种需求，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发，因为 C 语言不仅用于控制硬件，还广泛应用于操作系统和应用程序的开发。

5.2 C 和 C++ 的关系 ​

  • 起源和发展：

    • C 语言：C 语言由丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）在 1972 年开发，最初用于开发操作系统，特别是 UNIX。它是一种结构化的编程语言，提供了对硬件的低级访问，且效率高，因此在系统编程中广泛使用。
    • C++ 语言：C++ 由比雅尼·斯特劳斯特鲁普（Bjarne Stroustrup）在 20 世纪 80 年代初开发，作为 C 语言的扩展。它引入了面向对象编程的概念，同时保留了 C 语言的高效性和底层操作能力。C++ 最初被称为 “C with Classes”（带类的 C），后来发展成一种独立的编程语言。

  • 兼容型：

    • 语法兼容：C++ 几乎完全兼容 C 语言的语法，这意味着大多数 C 代码可以在 C++ 编译器下直接编译运行。C++ 可以看作是 C 语言的超集（虽然不完全是 100% 兼容，但差异较少）。
    • 扩展性：C++ 在 C 的基础上增加了许多新特性，如：类和对象、继承、多态、模板和异常处理等。这使得 C++ 不仅适合系统编程，还可以用于开发复杂的应用程序。

  • 编程范式：

    • C 语言：主要是面向过程编程，强调的是函数调用和控制结构。
    • C++ 语言：支持多种编程范式，包括：面向过程、面向对象和泛型编程，使得开发者可以更灵活地选择适合的编程风格。

  • 性能与应用：

    • 性能：由于 C++ 包含了更多的高级特性，它的编译时间和运行时开销可能比 C 稍高。但得益于其优化机制，C++ 仍然可以实现与 C 语言相近的性能。
    • 应用场景：C 语言仍然在嵌入式系统、驱动程序开发和其他对性能要求极高的场合中占据重要地位。而 C++ 则被广泛用于游戏开发、图形处理、大型软件系统等需要复杂结构和抽象的领域。

NOTE

总结：C++ 是 C 语言的继承者和扩展，它保留了 C 语言的优势，并引入了更多现代编程语言的特性，使得它在更广泛的应用领域中得到应用。

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- +0001,0001,000000010000 代表 STORE B, 16
  • 这种语言本质上是计算机能识别的唯一语言，人类很难理解；换言之，当时的程序员 99.9% 都是异类！！！

IMPORTANT

  • ① 不同类型（CPU 架构，如：x86_64、arm 等）的处理器有不同的机器语言指令集，指令集架构（ISA）决定了机器语言的具体形式。
  • ② 换言之，机器语言与特定硬件架构紧密相关，机器语言程序几乎没有可移植性。

2.3.2 汇编语言（相当于人类的青铜&铁器时代） ​

  • 汇编语言使用助记符（如：MOV、ADD、SUB）代替二进制操作码，使程序更易于人类编写和理解；因此，汇编语言也被称为符号语言。

  • 汇编语言的优点是能编写高效率的程序；但是，缺点和机器语言没什么不同，汇编语言同样依赖于具体的计算机架构（面向机器），程序不具备跨平台的可移植性。

NOTE

  • ① 汇编语言，目前仍然应用于工业电子编程领域、软件的加密解密、计算机病毒分析等。
  • ② 汇编语言是编程语言的拓荒年代，它非常底层，直接和计算机硬件打交道，开发效率低，学习成本高。

2.3.3 高级语言（相当于人类的信息时代） ​

  • 高级语言是一种接近于人们使用习惯的程序设计语言。它允许程序员使用接近日常英语的指令来编写程序，程序中的符号和算式也和日常使用的数学公式差不多，接近于自然语言和数学语言，容易被人们掌握。

  • 高级语言独立于计算机硬件，有一定的通用性；计算机不能直接识别和执行用高级语言编写的程序，需要使用编译器或解释器转换为机器语言，才能被计算机识别和执行。

NOTE

  • ① 普遍使用的高级编程语言，有：C、C++、Java、Python、C#、JavaScript、Go、SQL 等。
  • ② C 语言是“面向过程”的编程语言，已经脱离了计算机硬件，可以用来设计和开发中等规模的程序。
  • ③ Java、C++、Python、C# 等都是“面向对象”的编程语言（它们在“面向过程”的基础上又增加了很多概念），可以用来设计和开发中大型规模的程序。

总结：C 语言出现的时候，已经度过了编程语言的拓荒年代，具备了现代编程语言的特性，但是这个时候还没有出现“软件危机”，人们没有动力去开发更加高级的语言，所以也没有太复杂的编程思想；而之后出现的“面向对象”的编程思想解决了一部分在“软件危机”上的窘境。

2.3.4 总结 ​

  • 编写语言的对比，如下所示：
类别特征优点缺点示例
机器语言直接由计算机执行的二进制代码执行速度快编写困难，可读性差，与具体硬件强绑定二进制代码
汇编语言用助记符代替二进制代码的低级语言相对机器语言更易编写和理解，允许直接控制硬件资源依然需要了解硬件，不够抽象，与具体硬件或平台相关MOV，ADD 等助记符
高级语言接近人类语言，提供了更高层次的抽象易于编写和维护，可移植性好，支持多种编程范式需要通过编译器或解释器转换为机器语言，可能存在一定的性能损失C，Java， Python 等

NOTE

  • ① 这三种编程语言类型从低级到高级提供了不同层次的抽象，以满足不同的编程需求和场景。
  • ② 随着计算机科学的发展，高级语言因其强大的表达能力、良好的可移植性和易用性，成为了日常软件开发的主流选择。

第三章：初识 C 语言 ​

3.1 C 语言的由来 ​

  • 1969 年，美国贝尔实验室的肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson）和丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）一起开发了 Unix 操作系统。Unix 最初是使用汇编语言编写的，依赖于计算机硬件。为了程序的可读性和可移植性，它们决定使用高级语言重写。但是。当时的高级语言无法满足他们的要求，肯·汤姆森就在 BCPL 语言的基础上发明了 B 语言。
  • 1972 年，丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）在 B 语言的基础上重新设计了一种新的语言，这种新语言取代了 B 语言，即 C 语言。

  • 1973 年，整个 Unix 系统都使用 C 语言重写。

NOTE

C 语言最初是作为 Unix 系统的开发工具而发明的。

  • 此后，这种语言快速流传，广泛用于各种操作系统和系统软件的开发，如：Unix、MS-DOS、Microsoft Windows 以及 Linux 等。

  • 1988 年，美国国家标准协会（ANSI）正式将 C 语言标准化，标志着 C 语言开始稳定和规范化。

3.2 为什么要学习 C 语言？ ​

  • ① C 语言具有可移植好、跨平台的特点：用 C 语言编写的代码可以在不同的操作系统和硬件平台上编译和运行。

NOTE

  • ① C 语言的最原始的设计目的，就是为了将 Unix 操作系统移植到其他的计算机架构上，这使得它从一开始就非常注重可移植性。
  • ② 这边所说的 C 语言的可移植性，是和汇编语言相比的；如果 C 语言和现代化的高级编程语言相比，可移植性还是很差的，如：Java 的口号是“一次编译，到处运行”，Go 的口号是“一次编译，到处执行”。
  • ② C 语言在许多领域应用广泛。
    • 操作系统：C 广泛用于开发操作系统，如：Unix、Linux 和 Windows。
    • 嵌入式系统：C 是一种用于开发嵌入式系统（如：微控制器、微处理器和其它电子设备）的流程语言。
    • 系统软件：C 用于开发设备驱动程序、编译器和汇编器等系统软件。
    • 网络：C 语言广泛用于开发网络应用程序，例如：Web 服务器、网络协议和网络驱动程序。
    • 数据库系统：C 用于开发数据库系统，例如：Oracle、MySQL 和 PostgreSQL 。
    • 游戏：由于 C 能够处理低级硬件交互，因此经常用于开发计算机游戏。
    • 人工智能：C 用于开发人工智能和机器学习的应用程序，例如：神经网络和深度学习算法。
    • 科学应用：C 用于开发科学应用程序，例如：仿真软件和数值分析工具。
    • 金融应用：C 用于开发股票市场分析和交易系统等金融应用。
  • ③ C 语言能够直接对硬件进行操作、管理内存以及和操作系统对话，这使得它是一种非常接近底层的语言，非常适合写需要和硬件交互、有极高性能要求的程序。

NOTE

  • C 语言毕竟诞生的时间非常早（20 世纪 70 年代），属于 70 后了，有点落后于现在的时代，虽然执行效率高，但是开发效率低。
  • 随着时间的推移，人们在 C 语言的基础上增加了面向对象的机制（软件危机），形成了一门新的编程语言，它的名字是 C++ 。
  • 但是，C++ 的特性实在是太多了（因为 C++ 兼容 C，并增加了很多自己独有的特性，可以是当今最复杂的编程语言，没有之一），于是人们在 C++ 的基础上，删减了一些非必要的特性，就形成了 Java 和 C# ，也可以认为 Java 和 C# 是 C++--。
  • 当然，近年来，Go 语言也很火，它的设计者之一就是 Unix 操作系统的的开发者肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson），Go 诞生的背景据说是肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson）在 C++ 委员会在为其演讲 C++ 新特性的时候，觉得 C++ 新特性太多太复杂，于是就开发了 Go 语言；所以，Go 语言中有很多 C 语言的身影。
  • 其实，在 C 语言之后的许多编程语言，或多或少都参考了 C 语言；所以，编程界流传了一句话：汇编生 C ，C 生万物。
  • ④ 学习 C 语言有助于快速上手其他编程语言，如：C++（原先是 C 语言的一个扩展，在 C 语言的基础上嫁接了面向对象编程思想）、C#、Java 等，这些语言都继承或深受 C 语言的影响和启发。
  • ⑤ C 语言长盛不衰。C 语言至今，依然是最广泛使用、最流行的编程语言之一，包括很多大学将 C 语言作为计算机教学的入门语言，拥有庞大而活跃的用户社区，这意味着有许多资源和库可供开发人员使用。

3.3 计算机语言排行榜 ​

  • TIOBE 是一个流行编程语言排行，每月更新。排名权重基于世界范围内工程师数量，Google、Bing、Yahoo! 、Wikipedia、Amazon、Youtube 和百度这些主流的搜索引擎，也将作为排名权重的参考指标。

  • 计算机语言走势图：

3.4 C 语言的版本选择 ​

  • 随着微型计算机的日益普及，出现了许多 C 语言版本（标准）：

    • 版本 1（K＆R C）：K&R C 指的是 C 语言的原始版本。1978年，C 语言的发明者布莱恩·柯林（Brian Kernighan）和丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）合写了一本著名的教材《C 编程语言》（The C programming language）。

    NOTE

    由于 C 语言还没有成文的语法标准，这本书就成了公认标准，以两位作者的姓氏首字母作为版本简称 “K&R C”。

    • 版本 2（ANSI C，又称 C89 或 C90）：C 语言的原始版本非常简单，对很多情况的描述非常模糊，加上 C 语法依然在快速发展，要求将 C 语言标准化的呼声越来越高。1989 年，美国国家标准协会（ANSI）制定了一套 C 语言标准，并于次年被国际标准化组织（ISO）通过。它被称为 “ANSI C”，也可以按照发布年份，称为 “C89 或 C90”。

    • 版本 3（C99）：C 语言标准的第一次大型修订，发生在 1999 年，增加了许多语言特性，比如：双斜杠（ // ）的注释语法，可变长度数组、灵活的数组成员、复数、内联函数和指定的初始值设定项，这个版本称为 C99，是目前最流行的 C 版本。

    • 版本 4（C11）：2011 年，标准化组织再一次对 C 语言进行修订，增加了_Generic、static_assert 和原子类型限定符。这个版本称为 C11。

    NOTE

    需要强调的是，修订标准的原因并不是因为原标准不能用，而是需要跟进新的技术。

    • 版本 5（C17）：C11 标准在 2017 年进行了修补，但发布是在 2018 年。新版本只是解决了 C11 的一些缺陷，没有引入任何新功能。这个版本称为 C17。
    • 版本 6（C23）：2023 年发布，计划进一步增强安全性，消除实现定义的行为，引入模块化语言概念等新特性，使 C 语言在安全和可靠性方面有重大提高。
    • ……

第四章：C 语言的学习技巧 ​

4.1 如何学习 C 语言？ ​

  • 对于大部分的初学者， 学习 C 语言的目的可能是为了成为一名合格的程序员，开发出优秀的软件。但是，在学习了 C 语言的基本语法后，却发现只能在控制台（黑底白字）上玩玩，没有漂亮的用户界面以及人性化的交互。于是，开始学习数据结构、算法、数据库、操作系统，越陷越深，越来越迷茫，不知道学习 C 语言能做什么，认为学习编程很难，开始怀疑自己，直到放弃！！！
  • 其实，C 语言本身就是一门非常简单的语言，提供的实用功能不多，大部分的时候需要借助操作系统、第三方库以及以及一些硬件才能发挥它的威力！！！

IMPORTANT

  • ① 学习 C 语言仅仅是让你踏上程序员之路的第一步而已，只学习 C 语言也做不了什么。
  • ② 系统、扎实的学习 C 语言可以让你了解底层硬件、一些简单的数据结构和算法，并培养计算机思维。
  • C 语言是一门通用性的语言，并没有针对某个领域进行优化，在实际项目中，C 语言主要用于比较底层的开发，例如：
    • Windows、Linux、Unix 等操作系统的内核 90% 以上都使用 C 语言开发（Rust 语言有望未来，在操作系统开发中占据一席之地，特别是在对安全性和性能要求极高的领域）。
    • 开发硬件驱动，让硬件和操作系统连接起来，这样用户才能更有效的使用硬件。
    • 单片机和嵌入式属于软硬件的结合，是使用 C 语言最多的地方。
    • 开发系统组件或服务，用于支撑上层应用。
    • ……
  • 貌似感觉 C 语言的应用还是很多的啊，那为什么感觉学习 C 语言还是做不了什么？原因除了 C 语言通常都是开发最底层的应用之外，最重要的一点就是生态。

IMPORTANT

现代化的高级编程语言的流行程度，除了和编程语言的设计是否优秀有关，最主要的原因就是生态。

  • ① 很多编程语言都自带标准库（语言本身提供的，开箱即用），如：Java、Go 等。
  • ② 很多编程语言都有自己的包管理器（用于管理第三方库）解决方案，如：Java 中的 Maven、Gradle、Go 中的 go modules ，JavaScript 的 npm 等。

遗憾的是，C 语言的标准库非常简单，只有输入输出、文件操作、日期时间、字符串处理、内存管理，对于网络编程、GUI、数据库、并发等需要大量的第三方库或操作系统的功能来扩展 C 语言的功能（Java 语言、Go 语言等其他的现代化高级编程语言，都是直接将这些常见的开发场景内置到标准库中，开箱即用，极大的降低了软件开发的难度）。C 语言的第三方库也不是很多（和其它现代化高级编程语言相比），社区也不是很活跃（和其它现代化高级编程语言相比），更别提缺少自己的包管理器。

不过，现在 C 语言社区也开始诞生了一些包管理器，如：Conan 和 vcpkg ；也有自己的项目构建工具，如：cmake 、xmake 等。

NOTE

JavaScript 的作者 Brendan Eich（布兰登·艾奇） 曾经这么说：“与其说我爱 JavaScript，不如说我恨它。它是 C 语言和 Self 语言一夜情的产物（致敬 C 语言）。十八世纪英国文学家约翰逊博士说得好："它的优秀之处并非原创，它的原创之处并不优秀。"”

4.2 项目构建工具和包管理器 ​

4.2.1 概述 ​

  • 项目构建工具和包管理器在软件开发中扮演着不同的角色，它们虽然有时会有重叠的功能，但主要关注的点是不同的。

4.2.2 项目构建工具 ​

  • 项目构建工具是用于自动化编译、测试、打包、部署等一系列任务的软件工具。它们帮助开发者简化和管理整个软件开发生命周期中的各个步骤，尤其是在构建过程中的复杂性管理上。
  • 其功能有：
    • 编译代码：自动编译源代码（如 ：.java、.c 等）为可执行文件或中间文件（如：.class 文件）。
    • 运行测试：集成单元测试、集成测试，自动运行测试用例并生成报告。
    • 打包：将编译后的代码、依赖库、资源文件等打包成可分发的格式（如：JAR、WAR、可执行文件等）。
    • 依赖管理：自动下载、更新和管理项目所需的第三方库（这部分功能有时与包管理器重叠）。
    • 部署：将打包后的应用程序自动部署到测试环境、生产环境等。
    • 任务自动化：除了基本的构建流程外，还可以自动化执行一些常见任务，如：代码检查、文档生成等。
  • 常用的项目构建工具：
    • Maven（Java）：一个流行的构建工具和依赖管理工具，广泛用于 Java 项目。
    • Gradle（Java、Kotlin、Groovy）：一个灵活的构建工具，支持声明式的构建脚本和多种语言。
    • Make（C/C++）：一个经典的构建工具，使用 Makefile 来定义构建规则和依赖关系。
    • CMake（C/C++）：一个跨平台的构建系统，帮助生成标准的构建文件，如：Makefile 或 Visual Studio 项目文件。
    • ……

4.2.3 包管理器 ​

  • 包管理器是用于自动化安装、更新、配置和管理软件包及其依赖关系的工具。它主要关注于获取和管理项目所需的第三方库或工具包，并确保它们正确地集成到项目中。
  • 其功能有：
    • 依赖管理：根据项目配置文件（如：package.json、requirements.txt）自动下载和安装项目所需的依赖包。
    • 版本控制：管理包的版本，允许开发者指定某个特定版本或版本范围，确保项目中的库版本一致性。
    • 包的发布和共享：开发者可以通过包管理器发布自己的库，并且共享给社区或组织内部的其他项目使用。
    • 环境隔离：有些包管理器提供虚拟环境功能，可以将不同项目的依赖隔离开，避免版本冲突。
    • 更新和卸载：包管理器可以自动更新依赖包到最新的兼容版本或卸载不再需要的包。
  • 常见的包管理器：
    • npm（Node.js）：用于管理 JavaScript 和 Node.js 项目的包和模块。
    • pip（Python）：用于安装和管理 Python 的软件包。
    • Cargo（Rust）：Rust 编程语言的包管理器和构建工具。
    • Yarn（JavaScript）：是 npm 的替代品，提供更快和更可靠的包管理体验。
    • Homebrew（macOS）：用于 macOS 系统下的命令行工具和库的管理。
    • ……

4.2.3 注意事项 ​

  • 对于 Java 项目中的 Maven 或 Gradle 而言，其不仅是项目构建工具也是包管理工具。

NOTE

  • ① Gradle 也支持原生项目的开发，如：C 和 C++ 。
  • ② 不过，目前而言，业界开发 C/C++ 项目时，使用最多的项目构建工具和包管理器是 Cmake 和 Conan 。

第五章：附录 ​

5.1 嵌入式领域中的 C 语言 ​

5.1.1 概述 ​

  • C 语言在 C51、STM32 和 ARM 平台上的应用场景非常广泛，涵盖了各种嵌入式系统的开发需求。

5.1.2 C51（8051 系列微控制器） ​

  • 背景：8051 是由 Intel 于 1980 年设计的一种 8 位微控制器架构。它具有指令集简单、结构紧凑的特点，广泛应用于低端嵌入式系统中。
  • 开发工具：C51 是指针对 8051 系列微控制器的 C 语言编译器，如：Keil C51。这种编译器将 C 语言代码编译为适合 8051 架构的汇编代码。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 8051 微控制器上的应用使得开发更加高效和可维护。尽管 8051 的硬件资源有限，但 C 语言仍然能够在不损失性能的前提下提供高级编程的便利。
  • 应用场景：
    • 简单的控制系统：家用电器（微波炉、洗衣机、空调）的控制板等。这些设备通常不需要复杂的运算能力，但要求可靠和稳定的控制。
    • 低功耗传感器接口：C51 微控制器常用于低功耗传感器的数据采集和传输，如：温度、湿度、压力传感器。
    • 工业自动化设备：用于简单的工业自动化控制，如：小型电机驱动、工业传感器数据处理和传输。
    • 电子玩具：许多简单的电子玩具使用 8051 系列微控制器来控制声音、LED 灯光、显示屏等。

NOTE

总结：C51 微控制器适用于资源受限、需要低成本的简单控制系统，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发！！！

5.1.3 STM32（STM32 系列微控制器） ​

  • 背景：STM32 是意法半导体（STMicroelectronics）推出的一系列基于 ARM Cortex-M 内核的 32 位微控制器。它们广泛用于需要高性能和低功耗的嵌入式应用中，如：工业控制、消费电子和物联网设备。
  • 开发工具：开发 STM32 微控制器通常使用 Keil、IAR Embedded Workbench 或 STM32CubeIDE 等开发环境。这些环境中使用的编程语言主要是 C（有时也包括 C++）。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 STM32 上的应用非常广泛，开发者可以利用它直接控制硬件寄存器，同时也能方便地使用 STM32 提供的 HAL（硬件抽象层）库或 LL（低层）库进行开发。C 语言在这个平台上不仅能实现底层控制，还能编写复杂的应用逻辑。
  • 应用场景：
    • 物联网（IoT）设备：STM32 微控制器常用于各种物联网设备，如：智能家居控制系统、环境监测设备、可穿戴设备等。这些设备通常需要低功耗和强大的处理能力，并且需要支持多种通信协议，如：Wi-Fi、Bluetooth、LoRa。
    • 消费电子：智能手表、健身追踪器、电子书阅读器、无人机等，这些设备需要具备实时处理能力、低功耗和良好的外设支持。
    • 医疗设备：STM32 微控制器被广泛应用于便携式医疗设备中，如：血糖监测仪、心率监测器、便携式超声设备等，这些设备需要精确的传感器数据采集和处理。
    • 工业自动化控制：PLC（可编程逻辑控制器）、工业机器人、伺服电机控制等，STM32 能够处理复杂的控制算法和实时任务。
    • 汽车电子：用于汽车中的传感器管理、车载信息娱乐系统、车身控制系统（车窗、电动座椅调节等）。

NOTE

总结：STM32 微控制器在物联网、消费电子、医疗设备和工业控制等领域表现出色，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发，因为 C 语言允许直接进行硬件控制并支持复杂的应用开发。

5.1.3 ARM 架构（特别是 ARM Cortex 系列） ​

  • 背景：ARM 是一种广泛使用的处理器架构，特别是在嵌入式系统中，ARM Cortex 系列处理器（如 Cortex-M、Cortex-R 和 Cortex-A）非常流行。Cortex-M 系列主要用于微控制器，Cortex-R 用于实时系统，Cortex-A 则用于高性能嵌入式系统。
  • 开发工具：针对 ARM 架构的开发，常用工具包括 ARM Keil MDK、IAR、GCC for ARM 和 ARM Development Studio。这些工具均支持使用 C 语言进行开发。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 ARM 架构上的应用广泛。它被用于操作系统内核（如 FreeRTOS、Zephyr）、设备驱动、应用层逻辑等。在 ARM Cortex-M 和 Cortex-R 系列中，C 语言的高效性和低级别硬件访问能力是开发实时、低延迟系统的关键。
  • 应用场景：
    • 高级嵌入式操作系统：ARM Cortex-A 系列处理器广泛用于运行 Linux、Android 等操作系统的嵌入式设备，如：智能手机、平板电脑、智能电视和车载娱乐系统。
    • 实时系统：ARM Cortex-R 系列处理器用于实时系统，如：汽车的 ABS（防抱死制动系统）、ESC（电子稳定控制系统），以及航空电子设备，这些系统要求极低的延迟和高可靠性。
    • 高性能物联网网关：Cortex-A 系列处理器可以用来开发支持多协议、多设备管理的物联网网关，这些网关通常需要强大的计算能力和多线程处理能力。
    • 边缘计算设备：在边缘计算场景中，ARM Cortex-A 处理器用于执行本地数据处理和决策，如：视频分析、图像处理、语音识别等。
    • 智能家居设备：ARM Cortex-M 系列微控制器广泛应用于智能家居产品，如：智能灯泡、智能音箱、家庭安全系统，这些设备需要高效的处理能力和低功耗。
    • 机器人控制系统：ARM Cortex-M 和 Cortex-A 系列处理器用于机器人系统的控制和通信，如：无人机、工业机器人、服务机器人等，处理复杂的运动控制、路径规划和传感器数据融合。

NOTE

总结：ARM Cortex 系列适用于从实时系统到高级嵌入式操作系统的各类应用，支持从低功耗控制到高性能计算的多种需求，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发，因为 C 语言不仅用于控制硬件，还广泛应用于操作系统和应用程序的开发。

5.2 C 和 C++ 的关系 ​

  • 起源和发展：

    • C 语言：C 语言由丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）在 1972 年开发，最初用于开发操作系统，特别是 UNIX。它是一种结构化的编程语言，提供了对硬件的低级访问，且效率高，因此在系统编程中广泛使用。
    • C++ 语言：C++ 由比雅尼·斯特劳斯特鲁普（Bjarne Stroustrup）在 20 世纪 80 年代初开发，作为 C 语言的扩展。它引入了面向对象编程的概念，同时保留了 C 语言的高效性和底层操作能力。C++ 最初被称为 “C with Classes”（带类的 C），后来发展成一种独立的编程语言。

  • 兼容型：

    • 语法兼容：C++ 几乎完全兼容 C 语言的语法，这意味着大多数 C 代码可以在 C++ 编译器下直接编译运行。C++ 可以看作是 C 语言的超集（虽然不完全是 100% 兼容，但差异较少）。
    • 扩展性：C++ 在 C 的基础上增加了许多新特性，如：类和对象、继承、多态、模板和异常处理等。这使得 C++ 不仅适合系统编程，还可以用于开发复杂的应用程序。

  • 编程范式：

    • C 语言：主要是面向过程编程，强调的是函数调用和控制结构。
    • C++ 语言：支持多种编程范式，包括：面向过程、面向对象和泛型编程，使得开发者可以更灵活地选择适合的编程风格。

  • 性能与应用：

    • 性能：由于 C++ 包含了更多的高级特性，它的编译时间和运行时开销可能比 C 稍高。但得益于其优化机制，C++ 仍然可以实现与 C 语言相近的性能。
    • 应用场景：C 语言仍然在嵌入式系统、驱动程序开发和其他对性能要求极高的场合中占据重要地位。而 C++ 则被广泛用于游戏开发、图形处理、大型软件系统等需要复杂结构和抽象的领域。

NOTE

总结：C++ 是 C 语言的继承者和扩展，它保留了 C 语言的优势，并引入了更多现代编程语言的特性，使得它在更广泛的应用领域中得到应用。

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

+ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/01_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/01_xdx/index.html index f5f9df2..7f9b5eb 100644 --- a/notes/01_c-basic/01_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/01_c-basic/01_xdx/index.html @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ - + - + @@ -305,7 +305,7 @@ --depth 1 \ --single-branch --branch=linux-msft-wsl-${KERNEL_VERSION} \ https://github.com/microsoft/WSL2-Linux-Kernel.git

  • 编译内核代码：
shell
cd WSL2-Linux-Kernel
shell
make -j $(nproc) KCONFIG_CONFIG=Microsoft/config-wsl

  • 编译 perf 工具：
shell
cd tools/perf
shell
make clean && make

  • 复制到 PATH 变量所指向的路径中：
shell
cp perf /usr/bin/

8.4.3 整合 ​

  • CLion 中配置 perf 的路径：

  • 在 CLion 中通过 perf 运行代码：

8.5 Win 中文乱码问题 ​

  • 前文，我们提及到，在 Win 中，如果出现中文乱码问题，就需要去语言和区别设置系统区域的编码为 UTF-8 ；但是，这样可能会造成其它的软件出现中文乱码问题，如：Xshell 等。

NOTE

  • ① 之所以，修改系统的编码为 UTF-8 会出现问题，是因为早期的 Win 系统的中文默认编码是 GBK（目前也是，Win 并没有强制第三方软件使用 UTF-8 编码） ，而 Xshell 等也使用的这些编码，一旦我们修改为 UTF-8 之后，可能会造成这些第三方软件出现中文乱码问题（第三方软件适配问题，相信将来应该都会切换为 UTF-8 编码），体验较差！！！
  • ② 在 Linux 或 MacOS 之所以不会出现中文乱码的问题，是因为这些系统默认的编码就是 UTF-8 。
  • 其实，还有一种解决方案，如下所示：

  • 测试一下，是否配置成功：

8.6 CLion 中自动导入头文件 ​

  • 在 CLion 中，最为强大的功能就是直接输入函数，然后让 IDE 帮我们自动导入头文件，包括自定义的头文件，相当实用。

NOTE

  • ① CLion 中的自动导入头文件的快捷键是 Alt + Enter 。
  • ② CLion 中的自动提取变量的类型的快捷键是 Ctrl + Alt + V 。

  • 开启自动导入头文件的步骤，如下所示：

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/02_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/02_xdx/index.html index 75fb30f..30872d2 100644 --- a/notes/01_c-basic/02_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/01_c-basic/02_xdx/index.html @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ - + - + @@ -260,7 +260,7 @@ return 0; }

3.3 进制的运算规则 ​

  • 十进制的运算规则，如下所示：
    • 逢十进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当十（针对减法而言）。
  • 二进制的运算规则，如下所示：
    • 逢二进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当二（针对减法而言）。
  • 八进制的运算规则，如下所示：
    • 逢八进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当八（针对减法而言）。
  • 十六进制的运算规则，如下所示：
    • 逢十六进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当十六（针对减法而言）。

3.4 进制的转换 ​

3.4.1 概述 ​

  • 不同进制的转换，如下所示：

  • 在计算机中，数据是从右往左的方式排列的；其中，最右边的是低位，最左边的是高位，即：

3.4.2 二进制和十进制的转换 ​

3.4.2.1 二进制转换为十进制 ​

  • 规则：从最低位开始，将每个位上的数提取出来，乘以 2 的 （位数 - 1 ）次方，然后求和。

NOTE

  • ① 在学术界，将这种计算规则，称为位权相加法。
  • ② 八进制转换为十进制、十六进制转换为十进制和二进制转换为十进制的算法相同！！！
  • 示例：十进制转十进制

  • 示例：二进制转十进制

3.4.2.2 十进制转换二进制 ​

  • 规则：将该数不断除以 2 ，直到商为 0 为止，然后将每步得到的余数倒过来，就是对应的二进制。

NOTE

  • ① 在学术界，将这种计算规则，称为短除法或连续除2取余法。
  • ② 很好理解，只有不断地除以 2 ，就能保证最大的数字不超过 2 ，这不就是二进制（只能有 0 或 1）吗？
  • ③ 八进制转换为二进制、十六进制转换为二进制和十进制转换为二进制的算法相同！！！
  • 示例：十进制转十进制

  • 示例：十进制转二进制

3.4.3 二进制转八进制 ​

  • 规则：每 3 位二进制就是一个八进制。

  • 示例：011 101 001 -> 351

3.4.4 二进制转十六进制 ​

  • 规则：每 4 位二进制就是一个十六进制。

  • 示例：1110 1001 -> 0xE9

3.5 原码、反码和补码 ​

3.5.1 概述 ​

  • 机器数：一个数在计算机的存储形式是二进制，我们称这些二进制数为机器数。机器数可以是有符号的，用机器数的最高位来存放符号位，0 表示正数，1 表示负数。

  • 真值：因为机器数带有符号位，所以机器数的形式值不等于其真实表示的值（真值），以机器数 1000 0001 为例，其真正表示的值（首位是符号位）为 -1，而形式值却是 129 ，因此将带有符号位的机器数的真正表示的值称为机器数的真值。

3.5.2 原码 ​

  • 原码的表示与机器数真值表示的一样，即用第一位表示符号，其余位表示数值。
  • 规则：
    • 正数的原码是它本身对应的二进制数，符号位是 0 。
    • 负数的原码是它本身绝对值对应的二进制数，但是符号位是 1 。
  • +1 的原码，使用 8 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（8位二进制数）
+10000 0001
  • -1 的原码，使用 8 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（8位二进制数）
-11000 0001

IMPORTANT

按照原码的规则，会出现 +0 和 -0 的情况，即：0000 0000（+0）、1000 0000（-0），显然不符合实际情况；所以，计算机底层虽然存储和计算的都是二进数，但显然不是原码。

3.5.3 反码 ​

  • 规则：

    • 正数的反码和它的原码相同。
    • 负数的反码是在其原码的基础上，符号位不变，其余各位取反。

  • +1 的反码，使用 8 位二进数来表示，就是：

十进制数原码（8位二进制数）反码（8位二进制数）
+10000 00010000 0001
  • -1 的反码，使用 8 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（8位二进制数）反码（8位二进制数）
-11000 00011111 1110

IMPORTANT

按照反码的规则，如果是 +0，对应的原码是 0000 0000；那么，其反码还是 0000 0000 ；如果是 -0，对应的原码是 1000 0000，其反码是 1111 1111，显然不符合实际情况；所以，计算机底层虽然存储和计算的都是二进数，但显然不是反码。

3.5.4 补码 ​

  • 规则：

    • 正数的补码和它的原码相同。
    • 负数的补码是在其反码的基础上 + 1 。

  • +1 的补码，使用 8 位二进数来表示，就是：

十进制数原码（8位二进制数）反码（8位二进制数）补码（8位二进制数）
+10000 00010000 00010000 0001
  • -1 的补码，使用 8 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（8位二进制数）反码（8位二进制数）补码（8位二进制数）
-11000 00011111 11101111 1111
  • 如果 0 ，按照 +0 的情况进行处理，即：

  • 如果 0 ，按照 -0 的情况进行处理，即：

IMPORTANT

  • ① 补码表示法解决了原码和反码存在的两种零（+0 和 -0）的问题，即：在补码表示法中，只有一个零，即 0000 0000。
  • ②补码使得加法运算和减法运算可以统一处理，通过将减法运算转换为加法运算，可以简化硬件设计，提高了运算效率。
  • ③ 计算机底层存储和计算的都是二进数的补码。

3.5.5 总结 ​

  • ① 正数的原码、反码和补码都是一样的，三码合一。
  • ② 负数的反码是在其原码的基础上，按位取反（0 变 1 ，1 变 0 ），符号位不变；负数的补码是其反码 + 1 。
  • ③ 0 的补码是 0 。

3.6 计算机底层为什么使用补码？ ​

  • 如果计算是 2 - 2 ，那么可以转换为 2 + (-2)，这样计算机内部在处理减法计算的时候，就会将其转换为加法计算的形式，以简化硬件设计和提高计算效率。
  • 最高位表示符号位，由于符号位的存在，如果使用原码来计算，就会导致计算结果不正确，即：

  • 补码的设计可以巧妙的让符号位也参与计算，并且可以得到正确的计算结果，即：

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/03_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/03_xdx/index.html index 75857c3..1f614af 100644 --- a/notes/01_c-basic/03_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/01_c-basic/03_xdx/index.html @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ - + - + @@ -789,7 +789,7 @@ return 0; }

2.8 运算符优先级 ​

  • C 语言中运算符的优先级，如下所示：
优先级运算符名称或含义结合方向
1[]数组下标➡️（从左到右）
()圆括号
.成员选择（对象）
->成员选择（指针）
2-负号运算符⬅️（从右到左）
（类型）强制类型转换
++自增运算符
--自减运算符
*取值运算符
&取地址运算符
!逻辑非运算符
~按位取反运算符
sizeof长度运算符
3/除➡️（从左到右）
*乘
%余数（取模）
4+加➡️（从左到右）
-减
5<<左移➡️（从左到右）
>>右移
6>大于➡️（从左到右）
>=大于等于
<小于
<=小于等于
7==等于➡️（从左到右）
!=不等于
8&按位与➡️（从左到右）
9^按位异或➡️（从左到右）
10|按位或➡️（从左到右）
11&&逻辑与➡️（从左到右）
12||逻辑或➡️（从左到右）
13?:条件运算符⬅️（从右到左）
14=赋值运算符⬅️（从右到左）
/=除后赋值
*=乘后赋值
%=取模后赋值
+=加后赋值
-=减后赋值
<<=左移后赋值
>>=右移后赋值
&=按位与后赋值
^=按位异或后赋值
|=按位或后赋值
15,逗号运算符➡️（从左到右）

WARNING

  • ① 不要过多的依赖运算符的优先级来控制表达式的执行顺序，这样可读性太差，尽量使用小括号来控制表达式的执行顺序。
  • ② 不要把一个表达式写得过于复杂，如果一个表达式过于复杂，则把它分成几步来完成。
  • ③ 运算符优先级不用刻意地去记忆，总体上：一元运算符 > 算术运算符 > 关系运算符 > 逻辑运算符 > 三元运算符 > 赋值运算符。

第三章：附录 ​

3.1 字符集和字符集编码 ​

3.3.1 概述 ​

  • 字符集和字符集编码（简称编码）计算机系统中处理文本数据的两个基本概念，它们密切相关但又有区别。
  • 字符集（Character Set）是一组字符的集合，其中每个字符都被分配了一个唯一的编号（通常是数字）。字符可以是字母、数字、符号、控制代码（如换行符）等。字符集定义了可以表示的字符的范围，但它并不直接定义如何将这些字符存储在计算机中。

NOTE

ASCII（美国信息交换标准代码）是最早期和最简单的字符集之一，它只包括了英文字母、数字和一些特殊字符，共 128 个字符。每个字符都分配给了一个从 0 到 127 的数字。

  • 字符集编码（Character Encoding，简称编码）是一种方案或方法，它定义了如何将字符集中的字符转换为计算机存储和传输的数据（通常是一串二进制数字）。简而言之，编码是字符到二进制数据之间的映射规则。

NOTE

ASCII 编码方案定义了如何将 ASCII 字符集中的每个字符表示为 7 位的二进制数字。例如：大写字母'A'在 ASCII 编码中表示为二进制的1000001，十进制的 65 。

  • 字符集和字符集编码之间的关系如下：

  • Linux 中安装帮助手册：

3.3.2 ASCII 编码 ​

  • 从冯·诺依曼体系结构中，我们知道，计算机中所有的数据和指令都是以二进制的形式表示的；所以，计算机中对于文本数据的数据也是以二进制来存储的，那么对应的流程如下：

  • 我们知道，计算机是上个世纪 60 年代在美国研制成功的，为了实现字符和二进制的转换，美国就制定了一套字符编码，即英语字符和二进制位之间的关系，即 ASCII （American Standard Code for Information Interchange）编码：
    • ASCII 编码只包括了英文字符、数字和一些特殊字符，一共 128 个字符，并且每个字符都分配了唯一的数字，范围是 0 - 127。
    • ASCII 编码中的每个字符都使用 7 位的二进制数字表示；但是，计算机中的存储的最小单位是 1 B = 8 位，那么最高位统一规定为 0 。

NOTE

  • ① 其实，早期是没有字符集的概念的，只是后来为了解决乱码问题，而产生了字符集的概念。
  • ② 对于英文体系来说，a-zA-Z0-9以及一些特殊字符一共 128 就可以满足实际存储需求；所以，在也是为什么 ASCII 码使用 7 位二进制（2^7 = 128 ）来存储的。
  • 在操作系统中，就内置了对应的编码表，Linux 也不例外；可以使用如下的命令查看：
shell
man ascii

  • 其对应的 ASCII 编码表，如下所示：

  • 但是，随着计算机的发展，计算机开始了东征之路，由美国传播到东方：

  • 先是传播到了欧洲，欧洲在兼容 ASCII 编码的基础上，推出了 ISO8859-1 编码，即：
    • ISO8859-1 编码包括基本的拉丁字母表、数字、标点符号，以及西欧语言中特有的一些字符，如：法语中的 è、德语中的 ü 等。
    • ISO 8859-1 为每个字符分配一个单字节（8 位）编码，意味着它可以表示最多 256 （2^8）个不同的字符（编号从 0 到 255）。
    • ISO 8859-1 的前 128 个字符与 ASCII 编码完全一致，这使得 ASCII 编码的文本可以无缝转换为 ISO 8859-1 编码。

  • 计算机继续传播到了亚洲，亚洲（双字节）各个国家分别给出了自己国家对应的字符集编码，如：
    • 日本推出了 Shift-JIS 编码：
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围：
        • 第一个字节：129 - 159 和 224 - 239 。
        • 第二个字节：64 - 126 和 128 - 252 。
    • 韩国推出了 EUC-KR 编码：
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围：从 41281 - 65278。
    • 中国推出了 GBK 编码：
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围：33088 - 65278 。

NOTE

  • ① 通过上面日本、韩国、中国的编码十进制范围，我们可以看到，虽然这些编码系统在技术上的编码范围存在重叠（特别是在高位字节区域），但因为它们各自支持的字符集完全不同，所以实际上它们并不直接冲突。
  • ② 但是，如果一个中国人通过 GBK 编码写的文章，通过邮件发送给韩国人，因为韩国和中国在字符集编码上的高位字节有重叠部分，必然会造成歧义。

3.3.3 Unicode 编码 ​

  • 在 Unicode 之前，世界上存在着数百种不同的编码系统，每一种编码系统都是为了支持特定语言或一组语言的字符集。这些编码系统，包括：ASCII、ISO 8859 系列、GBK、Shift-JIS、EUC-KR 等，它们各自有不同的字符范围和编码方式。这种多样性虽然在局部范围内解决了字符表示的问题，但也带来了以下几个方面的挑战：

    • 编码冲突：由于不同的编码系统可以为相同的字节值分配不同的字符，因此在不同编码之间转换文本时，如果没有正确处理编码信息，就很容易产生乱码。这种编码冲突在尝试处理多种语言的文本时尤为突出。
    • 编码的复杂性：随着全球化的发展，软件和系统需要支持越来越多的语言，这就要求开发者和系统同时处理多种不同的编码系统。这不仅增加了开发和维护的复杂性，而且也增加了出错的风险。
    • 资源限制：在早期计算机技术中，内存和存储资源相对有限。不同的编码标准要求系统存储多套字符集数据，这无疑增加了对有限资源的消耗。
    • ……

  • 针对上述的种种问题，为了推行全球化，Unicode 应运而生，Unicode 的核心规则和设计原则是建立一个全球统一的字符集，使得世界上所有的文字和符号都能被唯一地识别和使用，无论使用者位于何地或使用何种语言。这套规则包括了字符的编码、表示、处理和转换机制，旨在确保不同系统和软件间能够无缝交换和处理文本数据。

    • 通用字符集 (UCS)：Unicode 为每一个字符分配一个唯一的编号（称为“码点”）。这些码点被组织在一个统一的字符集中，官方称之为 “通用字符集”（Universal Character Set，UCS）。码点通常表示为 U+ 后跟一个十六进制数，例如：U+0041 代表大写的英文字母 “A”。
    • 编码平面和区段：Unicode 码点被划分为多个 “平面（Planes）”，每个平面包含 65536（16^4）个码点。目前，Unicode定义了 17 个平面（从 0 到16），每个平面被分配了一个编号，从 “基本多文种平面（BMP）” 的 0 开始，到 16 号平面结束。这意味着 Unicode 理论上可以支持超过 110万（17*65536）个码点。

  • Unicode 仅仅只是字符集，给每个字符设置了唯一的数字编号而已，却没有给出这些数字编号实际如何存储，可以通过如下命令查看：

  • 为了在计算机系统中表示 Unicode 字符，定义了几种编码方案，这些方案包括 UTF-8、UTF-16 和 UTF-32 等。
    • UTF-8：使用 1 - 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，兼容 ASCII，是网络上最常用的编码。
    • UTF-16：使用 2 - 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，适合于需要经常处理基本多文种平面之外字符的应用。
    • UTF-32：使用固定的 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，简化了字符处理，但增加了存储空间的需求。
  • Unicode 字符集和对应的UTF-8 字符编码之间的关系，如下所示：

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/04_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/04_xdx/index.html index c0ab609..178fb22 100644 --- a/notes/01_c-basic/04_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/01_c-basic/04_xdx/index.html @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ - + - + @@ -772,7 +772,7 @@ return 0; }

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/05_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/05_xdx/index.html index ff24f54..aa8c48f 100644 --- a/notes/01_c-basic/05_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/01_c-basic/05_xdx/index.html @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ - + - + @@ -720,7 +720,7 @@ return 0; }

WARNING

在上述示例中，arr 和 &arr 的值是一样的，但是对应的含义是不同的。

  • ① arr 是数组名，在大多数情况下会转换为数组第一个元素的地址，即：arr 等价于 &arr[0]，其数据类型是 int *。
  • ② &arr是数组名的地址，即整个数组的地址，它指向数组本身，并不是数组第一个元素的地址，&arr 的数据类型是 int(*)[3]。

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/06_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/06_xdx/index.html index 0ce1718..a96dbe1 100644 --- a/notes/01_c-basic/06_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/01_c-basic/06_xdx/index.html @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ - + - + @@ -101,7 +101,7 @@ printf("Address of array: %p\n", &arr); // 返回整个数组的地址 printf("Address of pointer: %p\n", &ptr); // 返回指针变量ptr的地址

综上所述，通过这些示例和解释，可以看出数组名虽然在某些场合下可以像指针一样使用，但它并不是一个真正的指针变量，而是一个常量，表示数组的首地址。

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/04_linux/01_xdx/index.html b/notes/04_linux/01_xdx/index.html index f1c5f83..a201ccf 100644 --- a/notes/04_linux/01_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/04_linux/01_xdx/index.html @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ - + - + @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@
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第一章：Linux ​

1.1 Linux 概述 ​

  • Linux 是一种开源的操作系统，最初由芬兰的林纳斯·托瓦兹（Linus Torvalds）开发。它基于 UNIX 操作系统，并且具有高度的可定制性和灵活性。Linux 操作系统被广泛应用于服务器、嵌入式系统和个人计算机等领域。
  • 它具有稳定性、安全性和可靠性，并且支持多用户、多任务和多线程。Linux 拥有众多的发行版，如：Ubuntu、Red Hat、Debian 等，每个发行版都有自己的特点和优势。
  • 由于其开源性质，Linux 操作系统受到了全球开发者的广泛支持和贡献，成为了计算机行业中的重要组成部分。

1.2 Linux 的发展史 ​

  • Linux 的发展历史可以分为以下几个阶段：

    • ① 初始阶段（1991 - 1994 年）：林纳斯·托瓦兹在 1991 年发布了 Linux 内核的第一个版本，并将其开源。在接下来的几年里，Linux 逐渐吸引了一些开发者的关注和参与，开始逐步完善和扩展功能。
    • ② 发展阶段（1995 - 2000 年）：在这个阶段，Linux 开始受到更多人的关注和认可。许多开发者和公司开始为 Linux 开发应用程序和驱动程序，为其增加更多的功能和兼容性。同时，一些发行版如：Red Hat、Debian 等也开始出现，为用户提供了更方便的安装和使用方式。
    • ③ 商业化阶段（2001 - 至今）：随着 Linux 的成熟和广泛应用，越来越多的公司开始将 Linux 作为服务器和嵌入式设备的操作系统。一些大型科技公司，如：IBM、Oracle 等也开始投入大量资源支持 Linux 的发展。同时，一些商业化的 Linux 发行版，如：SUSE、Ubuntu 等也崭露头角，为企业和个人用户提供了更专业的支持和服务。
    • ④ 社区发展阶段：Linux 的发展一直依赖于全球开发者社区的贡献和支持。Linux 社区不断壮大，吸引了众多的开发者和爱好者参与其中。通过社区的力量，Linux 不断更新迭代，推出了许多新的版本和功能。

  • 总的来说，Linux 的发展历程是一个由个人项目逐渐发展为全球开源社区支持的过程。它的成功得益于开源模式的优势，以及全球开发者的共同努力和贡献。

1.3 Linux 的组成（⭐） ​

  • Linux 主要由以下几个组成部分构成：

    • ① Linux 内核：Linux 内核是整个操作系统的核心，负责管理硬件设备、内存管理、进程调度等核心功能。它是由林纳斯·托瓦兹及其他开发者编写和维护的。
    • ② Shell 解释器：Shell 解释器是用户与操作系统交互的接口，它接收用户输入的命令并将其解释执行。常见的 Shell 解释器有 Bash、Zsh 等，它们提供了命令行界面和脚本编程功能。
    • ③ 外围的应用程序：命令、应用程序、图形化界面……

  • 其图示如下：

image-20240115214505877

  • 上述的组成部分共同构成了一个完整的 Linux 操作系统，为用户提供了丰富的功能和灵活性。

1.4 Linux 发行版本（⭐） ​

  • Linux 发行版本就是：Linux 内核 + 命令解释器 + 应用程序（桌面）。
  • 主流的 Linux 发行版本如下：
Linux 系统类别Linux 系统备注
Debian 系列Debian更新频率较低，较为稳定和安全，可以用于企业生产环境。
Ubuntu桌面美观，使用方便，开发使用。有桌面版和企业版本（服务器版本）。
Redhat 系列RedHat Enterprise Linux（RHEL）红帽企业版本
CentOS基于 Red Hat Enterprise Linux（RHEL）源代码构建的免费开源操作系统。它提供了企业级的稳定性和安全性，广泛用于服务器环境。
FedoraFedora 是由 Red Hat 赞助的社区驱动的 Linux 发行版，注重最新的软件和技术。它提供了一个先进的桌面环境和开发者工具。
Rocky Linux用来替代 CentOS 系统的，也是基于 Red Hat Enterprise Linux（RHEL）源代码构建的免费开源操作系统。
Alma Linux用来替代 CentOS 系统的，也是基于 Red Hat Enterprise Linux（RHEL）源代码构建的免费开源操作系统。
其它系列SUSE、OpenSUSEOpenSUSE 是一个用户友好且功能强大的 Linux 发行版，具有稳定性和灵活性。它提供了多种桌面环境和服务器选项。
  • 当然，除了以上几个主流的 Linux 发行版，还有许多其他的发行版，如：Arch Linux、Gentoo、Mageia 等，它们各自有着不同的特点和适用场景。
  • 选择适合自己需求的发行版是根据个人或组织的需求和偏好来决定的。

1.5 Linux 版本选择（⭐） ​

  • 推荐选择 LTS 版或稳定版。

WARNING

  • LTS 是 "Long-Term Support" 的缩写，意为长期支持。在软件开发领域，LTS 通常用来描述某个版本或发行版的长期支持周期。
  • 对于 Linux 发行版或其他软件，LTS 版本通常会提供更长时间的支持和维护，以确保稳定性和安全性。这意味着在 LTS 版本的支持周期内，开发者会持续提供安全补丁、错误修复和其他重要更新，以保持系统的稳定性和可靠性。
  • LTS 版本通常适用于企业和组织等需要长期稳定性和可靠性的环境。相比于非 LTS 版本，LTS 版本的更新频率较低，更注重于提供长期支持和维护。
  • 本次选择：
系统版本说明
UbuntuLTS 18.04 、LTS 20.04 等
AlmaLinux9.1、9.2、9.3 等

第二章：工作和学习环境部署（⭐） ​

2.1 服务器 ​

  • 服务器是一种专门用于提供服务的计算机系统。它通常具有更高的性能、可靠性和稳定性，以满足处理大量请求和提供持续服务的需求。
  • 服务器的主要功能是接收来自客户端的请求，并提供相应的服务或资源。这些服务可以包括：网站托管、数据库管理、文件存储、电子邮件、应用程序运行等。服务器通过网络与客户端进行通信，处理请求并返回相应的数据或结果。
  • 服务器通常采用高性能的硬件配置，如:多核处理器、大容量内存、高速存储设备等，以确保能够处理大量的并发请求。它们还通常具有冗余的设计，包括冗余电源、冗余网络连接和冗余存储等，以提高可靠性和可用性。
  • 服务器可以是物理服务器，即实际的硬件设备，也可以是虚拟服务器，即在物理服务器上通过虚拟化技术创建的虚拟机。无论是物理服务器还是虚拟服务器，它们都扮演着提供服务和资源的角色。
  • 在企业和组织中，服务器通常由专门的 IT 团队进行管理和维护。他们负责服务器的配置、安全性、性能优化、备份和恢复等工作，以确保服务器的稳定运行和数据的安全性。

TIP

实际工作的时候，Linux 系统会运行在服务器上。

2.2 虚拟机概述 ​

  • 虚拟机（Virtual Machine，简称 VM）是一种软件实现的计算机系统，它在物理计算机上模拟出一个完整的计算环境。虚拟机可以在同一台物理计算机上同时运行多个独立的操作系统和应用程序。

2

  • 虚拟机的工作原理是通过虚拟化技术将物理计算机的硬件资源（如：处理器、内存、存储等）进行抽象和分配，为每个虚拟机提供一部分资源。每个虚拟机都被视为一个独立的计算机系统，可以运行自己的操作系统和应用程序。
  • 虚拟机的优势在于它可以提供隔离性和灵活性。通过虚拟机，可以在同一台物理计算机上同时运行多个操作系统，实现资源的共享和最大化利用。同时，虚拟机还可以提供快速部署、快速备份和恢复等功能，方便管理和维护。
  • 常见的虚拟机软件，包括：VMware、VirtualBox、KVM 等。它们提供了虚拟化平台和管理工具，使用户可以轻松创建、配置和管理虚拟机。虚拟机广泛应用于开发和测试环境、服务器虚拟化、云计算等领域。

WARNING

虚拟机软件和虚拟机的概念不同：

  • ① 虚拟机软件是用来模拟硬件一个软件，如：VMware 等。
  • ② 而虚拟机是通过虚拟机软件模拟出来的计算机硬件，其实是文件的集合，相当于一台没有安装 Windows 操作系统的裸机。
  • ③ 在现实交谈的时候，我们有时候会模糊虚拟机软件和虚拟机的概念，甚至会使用虚拟机来代替虚拟机软件；此时，就需要根据上下文环境（语境）来判断到底说的是虚拟机软件还是虚拟机了。

2.3 安装虚拟机软件 ​

2.3.1 前提条件 ​

  • 需要在 BIOS 中开启虚拟化功能。

image-20240117085245337

2.3.2 安装步骤 ​

  • ① 双击打开 VMware 安装程序 。

双击打开VMware安装程序.png

  • ② 进行下一步安装：

VMware进行下一步安装.png

  • ③ 同意许可协议，单击下一步：

VMware同意许可协议，单击下一步.png

  • ④ 根据需要决定是否需要更改软件的安装位置（建议放置于除 C 盘以外任意盘符下）：

VMware更改安装位置.png

VMware更改安装位置成功.png

  • ⑤ 更改成功后，单击确定，下一步继续安装：

VMware更改成功后，单击确定，下一步继续安装.png

  • ⑥ 用户体验设置，如下图所示，单击下一步继续安装：

VMware用户体验设置，如下图所示，单击下一步继续安装.png

  • ⑦ 快捷方式设置，单击下一步继续安装：

VMware快捷方式设置，单击下一步继续安装.png

  • ⑧ 单击安装按钮：

VMware单击安装按钮.png

  • ⑨ VMware 输入许可证：

VMware单击许可证.png

VMware输入许可证.png

  • ⑩ 安装结束后，单击完成按钮：

VMware安装结束后，单击完成按钮.png

  • ⑪ 检查虚拟机软件是否安装了虚拟网卡：

查看VMware安装的虚拟网卡.png

查看VMware安装的虚拟网卡1.png

查看VMware安装的虚拟网卡2.png

2.3.2 配置网络 ​

  • ① 打开 VMware 虚拟机软件：

image-20240116202917529

  • ② 编辑 → 虚拟网络编辑器：

image-20240116202955131

  • ③ Vmnet8 → 更改设置：

image-20240116203207282

  • ④ 更改子网 IP 地址为 ：192.168.10.0 ，其目的是为了将 IP 固定。

image-20240116203357894

  • ⑤ DHCP 设置：

image-20240116203529749

image-20240116203627959

  • ⑤ 通过 cmd ，输入 ipconfig 命令，查看是否配置成功：

2.4 创建虚拟机 ​

2.4.1 概述 ​

  • 创建虚拟机，本质上就类似购买一台没有安装操作系统的裸机。

2.4.2 创建虚拟机 ​

  • ① 文件 → 新建虚拟机：

image-20240117090352182

  • ② 选择自定义类型的配置：

image-20240117090443216

  • ③ 虚拟机硬件兼容性：下一步即可。

image-20240117090529266

  • ④ 选择稍后安装操作系统：

image-20240117090636337

  • ⑤ 选择虚拟机将安装的操作系统：

image-20240117090805295

  • ⑥ 设置虚拟机的名称和安装位置：

image-20240117090944676

WARNING

一个虚拟机一个安装目录（文件夹），防止引起文件的冲突。

  • ⑦ 虚拟机中处理器的配置：下一步即可。

image-20240117091051284

  • ⑧ 设置虚拟机的内存：至少 2048 MB以上。

image-20240117091202131

  • ⑨ 设置虚拟机的网络类型：下一步即可。

image-20240117091257738

  • ⑩ 设置 I/O 控制器类型：下一步即可。

image-20240117091402913

  • ⑪ 选择磁盘类型：下一步即可。

image-20240117091540264

  • ⑫ 选择磁盘：下一步即可。

image-20240117091640870

  • ⑬ 选择磁盘容量：调整为 40 GB。

image-20240117091832846

  • ⑭ 指定磁盘文件：下一步即可。

image-20240117091907233

  • ⑮ 创建虚拟机完毕：

image-20240117092013264

  • ⑯ 查看是否创建虚拟机成功：

image-20240117092101810

2.4.3 虚拟机归类（分类） ​

  • 实际情况下，我们可能会创建很多虚拟机，VMware 提供了文件夹的功能来管理虚拟机；其步骤如下所示：
  • ① 鼠标右键 → 创建文件夹：

image-20240117092324545

  • ② 修改文件夹的名称：

image-20240117092600931

image-20240117092643086

image-20240117092720769

  • ③ 将刚才创建的虚拟机拖到该文件夹下：

2.4.4 设置 CD/DVD ​

  • 以前，我们在一台裸机上安装操作系统的时候，需要通过 DVD 或 U 盘将操作系统的 ISO 镜像文件，安装到裸机上；
  • 同理，在使用虚拟机软件的时候，也需要此类步骤；其步骤如下：
  • ① 编辑虚拟机设置：

image-20240117093143947

  • ② 选择硬盘上的 ISO 镜像文件：

image-20240117093354461

  • ③ 查看是否配置成功：

image-20240117093435976

2.5 安装 Linux ​

  • ① 开启此虚拟机：

image-20240117093516070

  • ② 鼠标点击进去之后，通过键盘上的方向键来选择：

image-20240117093610205

  • 注意⚠️：键盘上的方向键在这里

image-20240117093918602

  • ③ 设置操作系统的语言环境为中文：

image-20240117094530342

  • ④ 设置系统安装目的地：

  • ⑤ 设置软件选择：默认即可

  • ⑥ 设置 root 的密码：123456即可

WARNING

学习阶段无所谓设置什么密码，但是生产环境，必须复杂并且经常更换！！！

  • ⑦ 配置网络和主机名：

image-20240224223931266

image-20240224224038036

image-20240224224138061

image-20240224224209724

image-20240224224245924

image-20240224224344051

  • ⑧ 查看配置网络和主机名是否成功：

image-20240224224420273

  • ⑨ 点击开始安装：漫长的等待……

  • ⑩ 安装完成之后，会提示重启系统，那就重启吧：

2.6 远程连接 Linux ​

2.6.1 查看 Linux 的 IP 地址 ​

  • 通过 ifconfig 命令来查看 Linux 的 IP 地址：
shell
ifconfig

image-20240117101543732

2.6.2 远程连接 Linux ​

  • 可以通过 xshell 之类的远程连接工具来连接 Linux ，其步骤如下：
  • ① 新建会话：

image-20240117101749340

  • ② 输入 Linux 的 IP 地址：

image-20240117101906927

  • ③ 输入用户名和密码：

image-20240117102005340

  • ④ 接收和保存远程 Linux 的密钥：

image-20240117102123845

  • ⑤ 查看是否登录成功：

image-20240117102159684

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

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