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小数在内存中是如何存储的？","titles":["第三章：附录"]},"203":{"title":"第一章：概述","titles":[]},"204":{"title":"第二章：顺序结构","titles":[]},"205":{"title":"2.1 概述","titles":["第二章：顺序结构"]},"206":{"title":"2.2 应用示例","titles":["第二章：顺序结构"]},"207":{"title":"第三章：分支结构（⭐）","titles":[]},"208":{"title":"3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"209":{"title":"3.2 单分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"210":{"title":"3.2.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"211":{"title":"3.2.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"212":{"title":"3.2.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"213":{"title":"3.3 双分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"214":{"title":"3.3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"215":{"title":"3.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"216":{"title":"3.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"217":{"title":"3.3.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"218":{"title":"3.4 多重分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"219":{"title":"3.4.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"220":{"title":"3.4.1 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"221":{"title":"3.4.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"222":{"title":"3.5 多重分支结构 switch","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"223":{"title":"3.5.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"224":{"title":"3.5.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"225":{"title":"3.5.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"226":{"title":"3.5.4 switch 和 if else if 的比较","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"227":{"title":"3.6 嵌套分支","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"228":{"title":"3.6.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.6 嵌套分支"]},"229":{"title":"3.6.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.6 嵌套分支"]},"230":{"title":"第四章：随机数","titles":[]},"231":{"title":"4.1 概述","titles":["第四章：随机数"]},"232":{"title":"4.2 C 语言中随机数的产生","titles":["第四章：随机数"]},"233":{"title":"第五章：循环结构（⭐）","titles":[]},"234":{"title":"5.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"235":{"title":"5.2 for 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概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"251":{"title":"5.4.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"252":{"title":"5.4.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"253":{"title":"5.5 嵌套循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"254":{"title":"5.5.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"255":{"title":"5.5.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"256":{"title":"5.5.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"257":{"title":"5.5.4 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"258":{"title":"5.5.5 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"259":{"title":"5.6 无限循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"260":{"title":"5.7 跳转控制语句","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"261":{"title":"5.7.1 break","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"262":{"title":"5.7.2 continue","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"263":{"title":"5.7.3 return","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"264":{"title":"第一章：数组的概念","titles":[]},"265":{"title":"1.1 为什么需要数组？","titles":["第一章：数组的概念"]},"266":{"title":"1.1.1 需求分析 1","titles":["第一章：数组的概念","1.1 为什么需要数组？"]},"267":{"title":"1.1.2 需求分析 2","titles":["第一章：数组的概念","1.1 为什么需要数组？"]},"268":{"title":"1.1.3 容器的概念","titles":["第一章：数组的概念","1.1 为什么需要数组？"]},"269":{"title":"1.2 什么是数组？","titles":["第一章：数组的概念"]},"270":{"title":"1.3 数组的相关概念","titles":["第一章：数组的概念"]},"271":{"title":"1.4 数组的特点","titles":["第一章：数组的概念"]},"272":{"title":"第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","titles":[]},"273":{"title":"2.1 数组的定义","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"274":{"title":"2.1.1 动态初始化","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.1 数组的定义"]},"275":{"title":"2.1.2 静态初始化 1","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.1 数组的定义"]},"276":{"title":"2.1.3 静态初始化 2","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.1 数组的定义"]},"277":{"title":"2.2 访问数组元素","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"278":{"title":"2.3 数组越界","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"279":{"title":"2.4 计算数组的长度","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"280":{"title":"2.5 遍历数组","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"281":{"title":"2.6 一维数组的内存分析","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"282":{"title":"2.6.1 数组内存图","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.6 一维数组的内存分析"]},"283":{"title":"2.6.2 数组的注意事项","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.6 一维数组的内存分析"]},"284":{"title":"2.7 数组应用案例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）"]},"285":{"title":"2.7.1 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"286":{"title":"2.7.2 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"287":{"title":"2.7.3 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"288":{"title":"2.7.4 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"289":{"title":"2.7.5 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"290":{"title":"2.7.6 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"291":{"title":"2.7.7 应用示例","titles":["第二章：数组的操作（⭐）","2.7 数组应用案例"]},"292":{"title":"第三章：多维数组（⭐）","titles":[]},"293":{"title":"3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"294":{"title":"3.1.1 引入","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.1 概述"]},"295":{"title":"3.1.2 多维数组","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.1 概述"]},"296":{"title":"3.2 二维数组的定义","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"297":{"title":"3.2.1 动态初始化","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.2 二维数组的定义"]},"298":{"title":"3.2.2 静态初始化 1","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.2 二维数组的定义"]},"299":{"title":"3.2.3 静态初始化 2","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）","3.2 二维数组的定义"]},"300":{"title":"3.3 二维数组的理解","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"301":{"title":"3.4 二维数组的遍历","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"302":{"title":"3.5 二维数组的内存分析","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"303":{"title":"3.6 二维数组的应用案例","titles":["第三章：多维数组（⭐）"]},"304":{"title":"第四章：字符串（⭐）","titles":[]},"305":{"title":"4.1 概述","titles":["第四章：字符串（⭐）"]},"306":{"title":"4.2 字符数组（字符串）的定义","titles":["第四章：字符串（⭐）"]},"307":{"title":"4.2.1 标准写法","titles":["第四章：字符串（⭐）","4.2 字符数组（字符串）的定义"]},"308":{"title":"4.2.2 简化写法（推荐）","titles":["第四章：字符串（⭐）","4.2 字符数组（字符串）的定义"]},"309":{"title":"4.3 字符串的输入和输出","titles":["第四章：字符串（⭐）"]},"310":{"title":"第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐）","titles":[]},"311":{"title":"5.1 内存和内存地址","titles":["第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐）"]},"312":{"title":"5.1.1 内存","titles":["第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐）","5.1 内存和内存地址"]},"313":{"title":"5.1.2 内存地址","titles":["第五章：内存中的变量和数组（⭐）","5.1 内存和内存地址"]},"314":{"title":"5.2 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数值溢出","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.3 数值溢出"]},"208":{"title":"1.4 浮点类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"209":{"title":"1.4.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 浮点类型"]},"210":{"title":"1.4.2 格式占位符","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 浮点类型"]},"211":{"title":"1.4.3 字面量后缀","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 浮点类型"]},"212":{"title":"1.4.4 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 浮点类型"]},"213":{"title":"1.4.5 类型的取值范围","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.4 浮点类型"]},"214":{"title":"1.5 字符类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"215":{"title":"1.5.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 字符类型"]},"216":{"title":"1.5.2 格式占位符","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 字符类型"]},"217":{"title":"1.5.3 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 字符类型"]},"218":{"title":"1.5.4 类型的取值范围","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 字符类型"]},"219":{"title":"1.5.5 字符类型的本质","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.5 字符类型"]},"220":{"title":"1.6 布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"221":{"title":"1.6.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 布尔类型"]},"222":{"title":"1.6.2 早期的布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 布尔类型"]},"223":{"title":"1.6.3 宏定义的布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 布尔类型"]},"224":{"title":"1.6.4 C99 标准中的布尔类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 布尔类型"]},"225":{"title":"1.6.5 C99 标准头文件中的布尔类型（推荐）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.6 布尔类型"]},"226":{"title":"1.7 数据类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"227":{"title":"1.7.1 概述","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.7 数据类型转换"]},"228":{"title":"1.7.2 自动类型转换（隐式转换）","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.7 数据类型转换"]},"229":{"title":"1.7.2.1 运算过程中的自动类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.7 数据类型转换","1.7.2 自动类型转换（隐式转换）"]},"230":{"title":"1.7.2.2 赋值时的自动类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.7 数据类型转换","1.7.2 自动类型转换（隐式转换）"]},"231":{"title":"1.6.3 强制类型转换","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）","1.7 数据类型转换"]},"232":{"title":"1.8 再谈数据类型","titles":["第一章：数据类型（⭐）"]},"233":{"title":"第二章：运算符（⭐）","titles":[]},"234":{"title":"2.1 概述","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"235":{"title":"2.2 算术运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"236":{"title":"2.3 关系运算符（比较运算符）","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"237":{"title":"2.4 逻辑运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"238":{"title":"2.5 赋值运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"239":{"title":"2.6 位运算符（了解）","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"240":{"title":"2.6.1 概述","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"241":{"title":"2.6.2 输出二进制位","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"242":{"title":"2.6.3 按位与","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"243":{"title":"2.6.4 按位或","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"244":{"title":"2.6.5 按位异或","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"245":{"title":"2.6.6 按位取反","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"246":{"title":"2.6.7 二进制左移","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"247":{"title":"2.6.8 二进制右移","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）","2.6 位运算符（了解）"]},"248":{"title":"2.7 三元运算符","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"249":{"title":"2.8 运算符优先级","titles":["第二章：运算符（⭐）"]},"250":{"title":"第三章：附录","titles":[]},"251":{"title":"3.1 字符集和字符集编码","titles":["第三章：附录"]},"252":{"title":"3.3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：附录","3.1 字符集和字符集编码"]},"253":{"title":"3.3.2 ASCII 编码","titles":["第三章：附录","3.1 字符集和字符集编码"]},"254":{"title":"3.3.3 Unicode 编码","titles":["第三章：附录","3.1 字符集和字符集编码"]},"255":{"title":"第一章：概述","titles":[]},"256":{"title":"第二章：顺序结构","titles":[]},"257":{"title":"2.1 概述","titles":["第二章：顺序结构"]},"258":{"title":"2.2 应用示例","titles":["第二章：顺序结构"]},"259":{"title":"第三章：分支结构（⭐）","titles":[]},"260":{"title":"3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"261":{"title":"3.2 单分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"262":{"title":"3.2.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"263":{"title":"3.2.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"264":{"title":"3.2.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.2 单分支结构"]},"265":{"title":"3.3 双分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"266":{"title":"3.3.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"267":{"title":"3.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"268":{"title":"3.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"269":{"title":"3.3.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.3 双分支结构"]},"270":{"title":"3.4 多重分支结构","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"271":{"title":"3.4.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"272":{"title":"3.4.1 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"273":{"title":"3.4.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.4 多重分支结构"]},"274":{"title":"3.5 多重分支结构 switch","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"275":{"title":"3.5.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"276":{"title":"3.5.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"277":{"title":"3.5.3 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"278":{"title":"3.5.4 switch 和 if else if 的比较","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.5 多重分支结构 switch"]},"279":{"title":"3.6 嵌套分支","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）"]},"280":{"title":"3.6.1 概述","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.6 嵌套分支"]},"281":{"title":"3.6.2 应用示例","titles":["第三章：分支结构（⭐）","3.6 嵌套分支"]},"282":{"title":"第四章：随机数","titles":[]},"283":{"title":"4.1 概述","titles":["第四章：随机数"]},"284":{"title":"4.2 C 语言中随机数的产生","titles":["第四章：随机数"]},"285":{"title":"第五章：循环结构（⭐）","titles":[]},"286":{"title":"5.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"287":{"title":"5.2 for 循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"288":{"title":"5.2.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"289":{"title":"5.2.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"290":{"title":"5.2.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"291":{"title":"5.2.4 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"292":{"title":"5.2.5 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"293":{"title":"5.2.6 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.2 for 循环"]},"294":{"title":"5.3 while 循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"295":{"title":"5.3.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"296":{"title":"5.3.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"297":{"title":"5.3.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"298":{"title":"5.3.4 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"299":{"title":"5.3.5 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"300":{"title":"5.3.6 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.3 while 循环"]},"301":{"title":"5.4 do-while 循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"302":{"title":"5.4.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"303":{"title":"5.4.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"304":{"title":"5.4.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.4 do-while 循环"]},"305":{"title":"5.5 嵌套循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"306":{"title":"5.5.1 概述","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"307":{"title":"5.5.2 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"308":{"title":"5.5.3 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"309":{"title":"5.5.4 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"310":{"title":"5.5.5 应用示例","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.5 嵌套循环"]},"311":{"title":"5.6 无限循环","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"312":{"title":"5.7 跳转控制语句","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）"]},"313":{"title":"5.7.1 break","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"314":{"title":"5.7.2 continue","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"315":{"title":"5.7.3 return","titles":["第五章：循环结构（⭐）","5.7 跳转控制语句"]},"316":{"title":"第一章：数组的概念","titles":[]},"317":{"title":"1.1 为什么需要数组？","titles":["第一章：数组的概念"]},"318":{"title":"1.1.1 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a/assets/notes_01_c-basic_00_xdx_index.md.g0RGYfWR.js b/assets/notes_01_c-basic_00_xdx_index.md.BRC7slaL.js similarity index 87% rename from assets/notes_01_c-basic_00_xdx_index.md.g0RGYfWR.js rename to assets/notes_01_c-basic_00_xdx_index.md.BRC7slaL.js index 2160763..c6a87d8 100644 --- a/assets/notes_01_c-basic_00_xdx_index.md.g0RGYfWR.js +++ b/assets/notes_01_c-basic_00_xdx_index.md.BRC7slaL.js @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -import{_ as l,c as i,o as s,a6 as a}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpNYY.js";const e="/c/assets/1.D4a42fT1.jpg",t="/c/assets/2.D2wnxl5F.png",n="/c/assets/3.Dq625oo9.jpg",o="/c/assets/4.uqu1DEK4.png",c="/c/assets/5.C6Q0Q8kf.jpg",d="/c/assets/6.B4Srsb-0.png",p="/c/assets/7._D_c8Lrn.png",r="/c/assets/8.DlIyFGDg.png",h="/c/assets/9.7zkUmpQw.png",u="/c/assets/10.h1ugtjyX.png",k="/c/assets/11.D5PWTabw.png",b="/c/assets/12.Bvs6QYjl.jpg",C="/c/assets/9.7zkUmpQw.png",g="/c/assets/14.CsR5exrN.png",m="/c/assets/15.BRG9GQdT.png",E="/c/assets/16.C2sciGZn.png",y="/c/assets/17.DdyXXyxJ.png",v="/c/assets/18.DIeb_KXW.png",A="/c/assets/19.C-kvMz2p.png",x="/c/assets/20.CQqFxmDa.png",_="/c/assets/21.CjMWyIiX.png",f="/c/assets/22.DFQhcDgs.png",P="/c/assets/23.Cco1vsW8.png",L=JSON.parse('{"title":"第一章：计算机组成原理","description":"","frontmatter":{},"headers":[],"relativePath":"notes/01_c-basic/00_xdx/index.md","filePath":"notes/01_c-basic/00_xdx/index.md","lastUpdated":1724455343000}'),S={name:"notes/01_c-basic/00_xdx/index.md"},T=a('

IMPORTANT

  • ① C 语言是一门面向过程的编译型的编程语言，其最大特点在于 运行速度极快，仅次于汇编语言，这使得 C 语言在需要高性能的场景中得到广泛应用，如：操作系统、硬件驱动程序和嵌入式系统。然而，开发效率较低也是 C 语言的一大特点，程序员需要手动管理内存和处理低级别的操作，这对编程能力要求较高。
  • ② C 语言不仅仅是一门编程语言，更是计算机行业的核心语言。它是计算机专业的基础课程，无论是操作系统的构建、硬件驱动的开发，还是数据库系统的实现，都离不开 C 语言的支持。学习 C 语言 不仅是掌握编程技能的必经之路，也是深入理解计算机底层原理的关键。如果忽视了 C 语言的学习，将难以深入理解计算机系统的工作原理，也很难在计算机行业中取得长远的发展。

NOTE

总结就是一句话：C 语言重要（赞），很重要（大赞），非常重要（非常赞），绝对重要（无敌赞），史无前例的重要（一赞到底）！！！

第一章：计算机组成原理 ​

1.1 计算机系统 ​

  • 计算机（Computer），俗称"电脑"，是一种能够接收和存储信息，并按照存储在其内部的程序对海量的数据进行自动、高速的处理，然后将处理结果输出的现代化智能电子设备。
  • 计算机有很多形式，如：台式电脑、笔记本电脑、智能手机、平板电脑等，还有生产环境中提供重要业务支撑的各种服务器。

  • 一个完整的计算机系统由硬件（Hardware）系统和软件（Software）系统两大部分组成，即：

1.2 冯·诺依曼体系结构 ​

  • 冯·诺依曼是一位多才多艺的科学家，他在数学、物理学、计算机科学、经济学等领域都有杰出的贡献。

  • 冯·诺依曼的主要成就：
    • 在计算机科学领域的最著名贡献是提出了冯·诺依曼体系结构（1946 年），这是现代计算机设计的基础。
    • 促进了计算机的可编程性和通用性，使得计算机能够执行各种复杂的任务。
    • 对核武器设计、自动化控制系统、人工智能等领域的发展产生了重要影响。
    • ……

IMPORTANT

冯·诺依曼体系结构是现代计算机（量子计算机除外）设计的基础。

  • 冯·诺依曼体系结构的理论要点如下：

    • ① 存储程序：程序指令和数据都存储在计算机的内存中，这使得程序可以在运行时修改。
    • ② 二进制逻辑：所有数据和指令都以二进制形式表示。
    • ③ 顺序执行：指令按照它们在内存中的顺序执行，但可以有条件地改变执行顺序。
    • ④ 五大部件：计算机由运算器、控制器、存储器、输入设备和输出设备组成。
    • ⑤ 指令结构：指令由操作码和地址码组成，操作码指示要执行的操作，地址码指示操作数的位置。
    • ⑥ 中心化控制：计算机的控制单元（CPU）负责解释和执行指令，控制数据流。

NOTE

上述的组件协同工作，构成了一个完整的计算机系统：

  • 运算器和控制器通常被集成在一起，组成中央处理器（CPU），负责数据处理和指令执行。
  • 存储器（内存）保存数据和程序，是计算机运作的基础。
  • 输入设备和输出设备负责与外界的交互，确保用户能够输入信息并接收计算机的处理结果。

1.3 各种硬件处理速度和性能优化 ​

  • 计算机的性能短板：如果 CPU 有每秒处理 1000 个服务请求的能力，各种总线的负载能力能达到 500 个， 但网卡只能接受 200个请求，而硬盘只能负担 150 个的话，那这台服务器得处理能力只能是 150 个请求/ 秒，有 85% 的处理器计算能力浪费了，在计算机系统当中，硬盘的读写速率已经成为影响系统性能进一步提高的瓶颈。

img

  • 计算机的各个设备部件的延迟从高到低的排列，依次是机械硬盘（HDD）、固态硬盘（SSD）、内存、CPU 。

img

  • 从上图中，我们可以知道，CPU 是最快的，一个时钟周期是 0.3 ns ，内存访问需要 120 ns ，固态硬盘访问需要 50-150 us，传统的硬盘访问需要 1-10 ms，而网络访问是最慢，需要 40 ms 以上。
  • 时间的单位换算如下：
txt
1 秒 = 1000 毫秒，即 1 s = 1000 ms。
+import{_ as l,c as i,o as a,a6 as s}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpNYY.js";const e="/c/assets/1.D4a42fT1.jpg",t="/c/assets/2.D2wnxl5F.png",n="/c/assets/3.Dq625oo9.jpg",o="/c/assets/4.uqu1DEK4.png",c="/c/assets/5.C6Q0Q8kf.jpg",d="/c/assets/6.B4Srsb-0.png",p="/c/assets/7._D_c8Lrn.png",r="/c/assets/8.DlIyFGDg.png",h="/c/assets/9.7zkUmpQw.png",u="/c/assets/10.h1ugtjyX.png",k="/c/assets/11.D5PWTabw.png",b="/c/assets/12.Bvs6QYjl.jpg",C="/c/assets/9.7zkUmpQw.png",g="/c/assets/14.CsR5exrN.png",m="/c/assets/15.BRG9GQdT.png",E="/c/assets/16.C2sciGZn.png",y="/c/assets/17.DdyXXyxJ.png",v="/c/assets/18.DIeb_KXW.png",x="/c/assets/19.C-kvMz2p.png",A="/c/assets/20.CQqFxmDa.png",_="/c/assets/21.CjMWyIiX.png",f="/c/assets/22.DFQhcDgs.png",P="/c/assets/23.Cco1vsW8.png",L=JSON.parse('{"title":"第一章：计算机组成原理","description":"","frontmatter":{},"headers":[],"relativePath":"notes/01_c-basic/00_xdx/index.md","filePath":"notes/01_c-basic/00_xdx/index.md","lastUpdated":1724640802000}'),S={name:"notes/01_c-basic/00_xdx/index.md"},T=s('
IMPORTANT
  • ① C 语言是一门面向过程的编译型的编程语言，其最大特点在于 运行速度极快，仅次于汇编语言，这使得 C 语言在需要高性能的场景中得到广泛应用，如：操作系统、硬件驱动程序和嵌入式系统。然而，开发效率较低也是 C 语言的一大特点，程序员需要手动管理内存和处理低级别的操作，这对编程能力要求较高。
  • ② C 语言不仅仅是一门编程语言，更是计算机行业的核心语言。它是计算机专业的基础课程，无论是操作系统的构建、硬件驱动的开发，还是数据库系统的实现，都离不开 C 语言的支持。学习 C 语言 不仅是掌握编程技能的必经之路，也是深入理解计算机底层原理的关键。如果忽视了 C 语言的学习，将难以深入理解计算机系统的工作原理，也很难在计算机行业中取得长远的发展。
NOTE
总结就是一句话：C 语言重要（赞），很重要（大赞），非常重要（非常赞），绝对重要（无敌赞），史无前例的重要（一赞到底）！！！
第一章：计算机组成原理 ​
1.1 计算机系统 ​
  • 计算机（Computer），俗称"电脑"，是一种能够接收和存储信息，并按照存储在其内部的程序对海量的数据进行自动、高速的处理，然后将处理结果输出的现代化智能电子设备。
  • 计算机有很多形式，如：台式电脑、笔记本电脑、智能手机、平板电脑等，还有生产环境中提供重要业务支撑的各种服务器。
  • 一个完整的计算机系统由硬件（Hardware）系统和软件（Software）系统两大部分组成，即：
1.2 冯·诺依曼体系结构 ​
  • 冯·诺依曼是一位多才多艺的科学家，他在数学、物理学、计算机科学、经济学等领域都有杰出的贡献。
  • 冯·诺依曼的主要成就： 
    • 在计算机科学领域的最著名贡献是提出了冯·诺依曼体系结构（1946 年），这是现代计算机设计的基础。
    • 促进了计算机的可编程性和通用性，使得计算机能够执行各种复杂的任务。
    • 对核武器设计、自动化控制系统、人工智能等领域的发展产生了重要影响。
    • ……
IMPORTANT
冯·诺依曼体系结构是现代计算机（量子计算机除外）设计的基础。
  • 冯·诺依曼体系结构的理论要点如下：
    • ① 存储程序：程序指令和数据都存储在计算机的内存中，这使得程序可以在运行时修改。
    • ② 二进制逻辑：所有数据和指令都以二进制形式表示。
    • ③ 顺序执行：指令按照它们在内存中的顺序执行，但可以有条件地改变执行顺序。
    • ④ 五大部件：计算机由运算器、控制器、存储器、输入设备和输出设备组成。
    • ⑤ 指令结构：指令由操作码和地址码组成，操作码指示要执行的操作，地址码指示操作数的位置。
    • ⑥ 中心化控制：计算机的控制单元（CPU）负责解释和执行指令，控制数据流。
NOTE
上述的组件协同工作，构成了一个完整的计算机系统：
  • 运算器和控制器通常被集成在一起，组成中央处理器（CPU），负责数据处理和指令执行。
  • 存储器（内存）保存数据和程序，是计算机运作的基础。
  • 输入设备和输出设备负责与外界的交互，确保用户能够输入信息并接收计算机的处理结果。
1.3 各种硬件处理速度和性能优化 ​
  • 计算机的性能短板：如果 CPU 有每秒处理 1000 个服务请求的能力，各种总线的负载能力能达到 500 个， 但网卡只能接受 200个请求，而硬盘只能负担 150 个的话，那这台服务器得处理能力只能是 150 个请求/ 秒，有 85% 的处理器计算能力浪费了，在计算机系统当中，硬盘的读写速率已经成为影响系统性能进一步提高的瓶颈。
img
  • 计算机的各个设备部件的延迟从高到低的排列，依次是机械硬盘（HDD）、固态硬盘（SSD）、内存、CPU 。
img
  • 从上图中，我们可以知道，CPU 是最快的，一个时钟周期是 0.3 ns ，内存访问需要 120 ns ，固态硬盘访问需要 50-150 us，传统的硬盘访问需要 1-10 ms，而网络访问是最慢，需要 40 ms 以上。
  • 时间的单位换算如下：
txt
1 秒 = 1000 毫秒，即 1 s = 1000 ms。
 1 毫秒 = 1000 微妙，即 1 ms = 1000 us 。
 1 微妙 = 1000 纳秒，即 1 us = 1000 ns。
  • 按照上图，将计算机世界的时间和人类世界的时间进行对比，即：
txt
如果 CPU 的时钟周期按照 1 秒计算，
 那么，内存访问就需要 6 分钟；
@@ -23,19 +23,22 @@ import{_ as l,c as i,o as s,a6 as a}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpNYY.js";const e
         }
     }
     public static void main(String[] args){
-        int a = 10;                                 // 用户态
-        int b = 20;                                 // 用户态
-        int c = a + b;                              // 用户态
-        string filePath = "c:/demo.txt";            // 用户态
-        string txt = a + b + c;                     // 用户态
+        // 用户态
+        int a = 10;                                 
+        int b = 20;                                 
+        int c = a + b;                              
+        string filePath = "c:/demo.txt";           
+        string txt = a + b + c;                    
         
-        writeFile(filePath, a);                     // 从用户态切换到内核态完成文件写入
+        // 从用户态切换到内核态完成文件写入
+        writeFile(filePath, a);                     
         
-        System.out.println(a);                      // 从内核态切换回用户态
-        System.out.println(b);                      // 用户态
-        System.out.println(c);                      // 用户态
+        // 从内核态切换回用户态
+        System.out.println(a);                      
+        System.out.println(b);                      
+        System.out.println(c);                     
     }
-}
1.4.3 ISA、ABI 和 API ​
  • ISA 、ABI 和 API 的参考模型如下：
  • 在底层，硬件模型以指令集架构 （ISA） 表示，该架构定义了处理器、寄存器、存储器和中断管理的指令集。ISA 是硬件和软件之间的接口，对于操作系统 （OS） 开发人员 （System ISA） 和直接管理底层硬件的应用程序 （User ISA） 的开发人员来说非常重要。
NOTE
  • ① ISA 是计算机体系结构中定义的一组指令，它规定了处理器能够执行的操作。ISA 包括指令的编码、寄存器的使用、内存访问模式等。不同的处理器可能有不同的 ISA，例如：x86、ARM、MIPS 等。
  • ② 在设计一个新的操作系统时，开发者需要确保操作系统能够支持特定的 ISA ，以便在特定的硬件上运行。例如：如果操作系统旨在运行在 ARM 架构的处理器上，那么它必须能够理解和执行 ARM ISA 定义的指令集。
  • 应用程序二进制接口 （ABI） 将操作系统层与由操作系统管理的应用程序和库分开。ABI 涵盖了低级数据类型、对齐方式和调用约定等详细信息，并定义了可执行程序的格式。系统调用在此级别定义。此接口允许应用程序和库在实现相同 ABI 的操作系统之间移植。
NOTE
  • ① ABI 是指在二进制级别上，应用程序与操作系统、库或应用程序的不同部分之间的接口。它定义了数据类型的大小、布局、对齐方式，以及函数调用的约定（如参数如何传递、返回值如何处理等）。ABI 确保了编译后的二进制文件能够在特定的操作系统和硬件平台上正确地运行。
  • ② 在 windows 上的应用程序的运行格式是：PE（portable executable）格式、.dll （dynamic link library）格式和 .lib 格式；而在 Linux 上的应用程序的运行格式是：ELF（executable and linking format）格式、.so （shared object）格式和 .a 格式。
  • ③ 在 Linux 中可以通过 file /bin/ls 命令查看指定可执行应用程序的 ABI 格式；从而也可以论证，在 Windows 上可以运行的程序，在 Linux 上运行不了。
  • ④ 当开发者在 Linux 系统上编写 C 语言程序，并使用特定的编译器（如：GCC）编译时，编译器会遵循 Linux 平台的 ABI 规范来生成二进制文件。这样，生成的可执行文件就可以在任何遵循相同 ABI 规范的 Linux 系统上运行。
  • ⑤ 如果一个应用程序需要跨平台（操作系统）运行，就需要使用一套代码，多平台编译的方式（针对 C 或 C++ 等），即：相同的源代码，在不同平台（操作系统）上使用特定平台的编译器（如：GCC）来分别编译成符合自己平台的 ABI 规范的二进制文件。
  • 最高级别的抽象由应用程序编程接口 （API） 表示，它将应用程序连接到库或底层操作系统。
NOTE
  • ① API 是一组预定义的函数、协议和工具，用于构建软件和应用程序。API 允许不同的软件系统相互交互，它定义了软件组件之间如何相互通信。API 可以是库、框架、协议或服务。
  • ② 在 Web 开发中，开发者可能会使用 JavaScript 的 Fetch API 来与服务器进行通信，获取数据或提交表单。这个 API 提供了一种标准化的方式来发送 HTTP 请求和处理响应，而不需要开发者关心底层的网络协议细节。
1.4.4 系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call） ​
  • 在现代操作系统中，应用程序都不能直接作用于硬件，而是运行在操作系统之上。
  • 并且，在上文的图示中，我们也会看到系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call）的身影，如下：
  • 其实，系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call）的区别如下：
类型系统调用（System Call）函数库（Library Call）
定义系统调用是操作系统提供给程序员的一组接口，这些接口允许用户空间的程序请求操作系统内核提供的服务，比如文件操作、进程控制、通信和内存管理等。函数库调用是指使用高级语言编写的一组预先编译好的函数，这些函数实现了一些常用的功能，比如：字符串处理、数学计算等。程序员可以在自己的程序中直接调用这些函数，而无需重新实现它们。
权限执行系统调用时，会从用户态切换到内核态。这是因为系统调用涉及到访问受保护的系统资源，这些操作必须由操作系统控制以确保系统的稳定性和安全性。函数库调用通常在用户态执行，不涉及到用户态与内核态之间的切换。它们直接使用操作系统通过系统调用提供的服务，或者完全在用户空间内完成计算，不需要操作系统介入。
性能开销由于涉及到用户态与内核态之间的切换，系统调用的执行成本相对较高。因此，频繁的系统调用可能会影响程序的性能。相对于系统调用，函数库调用的性能开销较小。因为它们通常不涉及到模式切换，且执行的操作多在用户空间完成。
示例open()，read()，write()，fork()，exec() 等 UNIX/Linux 系统调用。C 标准库中的 printf() 等函数；数学库中的 sin()，cos() 等函数。
NOTE
  • ① 执行层级：系统调用直接与操作系统内核交互，执行更底层的操作；而函数库调用运行在用户空间，通常使用系统调用来实现其功能。
  • ② 性能开销：系统调用由于涉及到用户态与内核态的切换，性能开销相对较大；函数库调用则因为主要在用户态执行，性能开销较小。
  • ③ 使用目的：系统调用提供了访问操作系统资源和服务的能力；函数库调用则提供了方便、高效执行常见任务的手段。
第二章：初识计算机语言 ​
2.1 计算机语言是什么？ ​
  • 人类语言是人和人之间用于沟通的一种方式，例如：中国人和中国人之间使用普通话沟通，而中国人和美国人交流，则可以使用英语。
NOTE
  • ① 中文有自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则），英文也是自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则）；同样的道理，法语、韩国等各种人类语言都有自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则）。
  • ② 在和别的国家的人进行交流的时候，我们必须正确的表达，对方才会理解我们；否则，如果不熟悉对方国家的语言的语法规则，乱用语法规则，可能会贻笑大方，如：中文中的望其项背原指看见对方的背影，形容差距不大，能赶上；但是，很多人却认为这是形容遥不可及或难以企及的目标。
  • ③ 就算和本国家的人进行交流的时候，我们也必须正确的表达，对方才会理解我们；否则，如果乱用语法规则，可能也会让对方感觉奇怪，听不懂我们的意思，如：借我 5000 RMB 买 iphone 或者 5000 RMB 我买 iphone 借。
  • 计算机编程语言是人和计算机交流的方式。人们可以使用编程语言对计算机下达命令（指令），让计算机完成人们需要的功能。
NOTE
  • ① 计算机语言也有自己固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则），我们必须学习其语法规则，才能控制计算机，让计算机完成我们所需要的功能。
  • ② 计算机语言有很多种，如：C、C++、Java、Go、JavaScript、Python、Scala 等。
2.2 为什么要学习计算机语言？ ​
  • 编程语言到底是什么？编程语言就是由文字和符号组成的，如：
c
#include <stdio.h> // 这是编译预处理指令
+}
1.4.3 ISA、ABI 和 API ​
  • ISA 、ABI 和 API 的参考模型如下：
  • 在底层，硬件模型以指令集架构 （ISA） 表示，该架构定义了处理器、寄存器、存储器和中断管理的指令集。ISA 是硬件和软件之间的接口，对于操作系统 （OS） 开发人员 （System ISA） 和直接管理底层硬件的应用程序 （User ISA） 的开发人员来说非常重要。
NOTE
  • ① ISA 是计算机体系结构中定义的一组指令，它规定了处理器能够执行的操作。ISA 包括指令的编码、寄存器的使用、内存访问模式等。不同的处理器可能有不同的 ISA，例如：x86、ARM、MIPS 等。
  • ② 在设计一个新的操作系统时，开发者需要确保操作系统能够支持特定的 ISA ，以便在特定的硬件上运行。例如：如果操作系统旨在运行在 ARM 架构的处理器上，那么它必须能够理解和执行 ARM ISA 定义的指令集。
  • 应用程序二进制接口 （ABI） 将操作系统层与由操作系统管理的应用程序和库分开。ABI 涵盖了低级数据类型、对齐方式和调用约定等详细信息，并定义了可执行程序的格式。系统调用在此级别定义。此接口允许应用程序和库在实现相同 ABI 的操作系统之间移植。
NOTE
  • ① ABI 是指在二进制级别上，应用程序与操作系统、库或应用程序的不同部分之间的接口。它定义了数据类型的大小、布局、对齐方式，以及函数调用的约定（如参数如何传递、返回值如何处理等）。ABI 确保了编译后的二进制文件能够在特定的操作系统和硬件平台上正确地运行。
  • ② 在 windows 上的应用程序的运行格式是：PE（portable executable）格式、.dll （dynamic link library）格式和 .lib 格式；而在 Linux 上的应用程序的运行格式是：ELF（executable and linking format）格式、.so （shared object）格式和 .a 格式。
  • ③ 在 Linux 中可以通过 file /bin/ls 命令查看指定可执行应用程序的 ABI 格式；从而也可以论证，在 Windows 上可以运行的程序，在 Linux 上运行不了。
  • ④ 当开发者在 Linux 系统上编写 C 语言程序，并使用特定的编译器（如：GCC）编译时，编译器会遵循 Linux 平台的 ABI 规范来生成二进制文件。这样，生成的可执行文件就可以在任何遵循相同 ABI 规范的 Linux 系统上运行。
  • ⑤ 如果一个应用程序需要跨平台（操作系统）运行，就需要使用一套代码，多平台编译的方式（针对 C 或 C++ 等），即：相同的源代码，在不同平台（操作系统）上使用特定平台的编译器（如：GCC）来分别编译成符合自己平台的 ABI 规范的二进制文件。
  • 最高级别的抽象由应用程序编程接口 （API） 表示，它将应用程序连接到库或底层操作系统。
NOTE
  • ① API 是一组预定义的函数、协议和工具，用于构建软件和应用程序。API 允许不同的软件系统相互交互，它定义了软件组件之间如何相互通信。API 可以是库、框架、协议或服务。
  • ② 在 Web 开发中，开发者可能会使用 JavaScript 的 Fetch API 来与服务器进行通信，获取数据或提交表单。这个 API 提供了一种标准化的方式来发送 HTTP 请求和处理响应，而不需要开发者关心底层的网络协议细节。
1.4.4 系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call） ​
  • 在现代操作系统中，应用程序都不能直接作用于硬件，而是运行在操作系统之上。
  • 并且，在上文的图示中，我们也会看到系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call）的身影，如下：
  • 其实，系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call）的区别如下：
类型系统调用（System Call）函数库（Library Call）
定义系统调用是操作系统提供给程序员的一组接口，这些接口允许用户空间的程序请求操作系统内核提供的服务，比如文件操作、进程控制、通信和内存管理等。函数库调用是指使用高级语言编写的一组预先编译好的函数，这些函数实现了一些常用的功能，比如：字符串处理、数学计算等。程序员可以在自己的程序中直接调用这些函数，而无需重新实现它们。
权限执行系统调用时，会从用户态切换到内核态。这是因为系统调用涉及到访问受保护的系统资源，这些操作必须由操作系统控制以确保系统的稳定性和安全性。函数库调用通常在用户态执行，不涉及到用户态与内核态之间的切换。它们直接使用操作系统通过系统调用提供的服务，或者完全在用户空间内完成计算，不需要操作系统介入。
性能开销由于涉及到用户态与内核态之间的切换，系统调用的执行成本相对较高。因此，频繁的系统调用可能会影响程序的性能。相对于系统调用，函数库调用的性能开销较小。因为它们通常不涉及到模式切换，且执行的操作多在用户空间完成。
示例open()，read()，write()，fork()，exec() 等 UNIX/Linux 系统调用。C 标准库中的 printf() 等函数；数学库中的 sin()，cos() 等函数。
NOTE
  • ① 执行层级：系统调用直接与操作系统内核交互，执行更底层的操作；而函数库调用运行在用户空间，通常使用系统调用来实现其功能。
  • ② 性能开销：系统调用由于涉及到用户态与内核态的切换，性能开销相对较大；函数库调用则因为主要在用户态执行，性能开销较小。
  • ③ 使用目的：系统调用提供了访问操作系统资源和服务的能力；函数库调用则提供了方便、高效执行常见任务的手段。
第二章：初识计算机语言 ​
2.1 计算机语言是什么？ ​
  • 人类语言是人和人之间用于沟通的一种方式，例如：中国人和中国人之间使用普通话沟通，而中国人和美国人交流，则可以使用英语。
NOTE
  • ① 中文有自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则），英文也是自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则）；同样的道理，法语、韩国等各种人类语言都有自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则）。
  • ② 在和别的国家的人进行交流的时候，我们必须正确的表达，对方才会理解我们；否则，如果不熟悉对方国家的语言的语法规则，乱用语法规则，可能会贻笑大方，如：中文中的望其项背原指看见对方的背影，形容差距不大，能赶上；但是，很多人却认为这是形容遥不可及或难以企及的目标。
  • ③ 就算和本国家的人进行交流的时候，我们也必须正确的表达，对方才会理解我们；否则，如果乱用语法规则，可能也会让对方感觉奇怪，听不懂我们的意思，如：借我 5000 RMB 买 iphone 或者 5000 RMB 我买 iphone 借。
  • 计算机编程语言是人和计算机交流的方式。人们可以使用编程语言对计算机下达命令（指令），让计算机完成人们需要的功能。
NOTE
  • ① 计算机语言也有自己固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则），我们必须学习其语法规则，才能控制计算机，让计算机完成我们所需要的功能。
  • ② 计算机语言有很多种，如：C、C++、Java、Go、JavaScript、Python、Scala 等。
2.2 为什么要学习计算机语言？ ​
  • 编程语言到底是什么？编程语言就是由文字和符号组成的，如：
c
#include <stdio.h> // 这是编译预处理指令
 
 int main() { // 定义主函数
 
@@ -44,4 +47,4 @@ import{_ as l,c as i,o as s,a6 as a}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpNYY.js";const e
     return 0;  // 函数执行完毕时返回函数值0
 }
  • 编程语言就是用于控制计算机，让其完成我们需要的功能。而我们学习编程语言，其实就是学习这些文字和符号编写的规则。
  • 因为 CPU 只能识别二进制的指令，而我们编写的程序叫做源代码，是人类能看懂；但是，计算机却不能识别。那么，我们就需要让计算机能识别我们编写的源程序，就需要将我们编写的源代码交给编译器程序，其会帮助我们将所编写的源代码转换为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
NOTE
编译器就是运行在操作系统之上的程序，其作用就是用来将程序员编写的源代码转换为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
  • 如果我们用 Java 语言编写了程序（源代码），那么编写的程序也是不能直接运行的，需要通过 Java 语言的编译器将 Java 程序编译为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
  • 如果我们用 Python 语言编写了程序（源代码），那么编写的程序也是不能直接运行的，需要通过 Python 语言的编译器将 Python 程序编译为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
  • ……
NOTE
总结：无论我们学习任何一门编程语言，想要将程序运行起来，都必须做如下的两件事情：
  • ① 学习该语言的文字和符号编写的规则，即：语法规则。
  • ② 需要在操作系统上安装对应编程语言的编译器程序，将源程序编译为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
2.3 计算机语言简史 ​
2.3.1 机器语言（相当于人类的石器时代） ​
  • 1946 年 2 月 14 日，世界上第一台计算机 ENIAC 诞生，使用的是最原始的穿透卡片。
  • 这种卡片使用的是用二进制代码表示的语言，和人类语言差别极大，这种语言就称为机器语言，如：
txt
0000,0000,000000010000 代表 LOAD A, 16
 0000,0001,000000000001 代表 LOAD B, 1
-0001,0001,000000010000 代表 STORE B, 16
  • 这种语言本质上是计算机能识别的唯一语言，人类很难理解；换言之，当时的程序员 99.9% 都是异类！！！
WARNING
  • ① 不同类型（CPU 架构，如：x86_64、arm 等）的处理器有不同的机器语言指令集，指令集架构（ISA）决定了机器语言的具体形式。
  • ② 换言之，机器语言与特定硬件架构紧密相关，机器语言程序几乎没有可移植性。
2.3.2 汇编语言（相当于人类的青铜&铁器时代） ​
  • 汇编语言使用助记符（如：MOV、ADD、SUB）代替二进制操作码，使程序更易于人类编写和理解；因此，汇编语言也被称为符号语言。
  • 汇编语言的优点是能编写高效率的程序；但是，缺点和机器语言没什么不同，汇编语言同样依赖于具体的计算机架构（面向机器），程序不具备跨平台的可移植性。
WARNING
  • ① 汇编语言，目前仍然应用于工业电子编程领域、软件的加密解密、计算机病毒分析等。
  • ② 汇编语言是编程语言的拓荒年代，它非常底层，直接和计算机硬件打交道，开发效率低，学习成本高。
2.3.3 高级语言（相当于人类的信息时代） ​
  • 高级语言是一种接近于人们使用习惯的程序设计语言。它允许程序员使用接近日常英语的指令来编写程序，程序中的符号和算式也和日常使用的数学公式差不多，接近于自然语言和数学语言，容易被人们掌握。
  • 高级语言独立于计算机硬件，有一定的通用性；计算机不能直接识别和执行用高级语言编写的程序，需要使用编译器或解释器转换为机器语言，才能被计算机识别和执行。
NOTE
  • ① 普遍使用的高级编程语言，有：C、C++、Java、Python、C#、JavaScript、Go、SQL 等。
  • ② C 语言是“面向过程”的编程语言，已经脱离了计算机硬件，可以用来设计和开发中等规模的程序。
  • ③ Java、C++、Python、C# 等都是“面向对象”的编程语言（它们在“面向过程”的基础上又增加了很多概念），可以用来设计和开发中大型规模的程序。
IMPORTANT
C 语言出现的时候，已经度过了编程语言的拓荒年代，具备了现代编程语言的特性，但是这个时候还没有出现“软件危机”，人们没有动力去开发更加高级的语言，所以也没有太复杂的编程思想；而之后出现的“面向对象”的编程思想解决了一部分在“软件危机”上的窘境。
2.3.4 总结 ​
  • 编写语言的对比，如下所示：
类别特征优点缺点示例
机器语言直接由计算机执行的二进制代码执行速度快编写困难，可读性差，与具体硬件强绑定二进制代码
汇编语言用助记符代替二进制代码的低级语言相对机器语言更易编写和理解，允许直接控制硬件资源依然需要了解硬件，不够抽象，与具体硬件或平台相关MOV，ADD 等助记符
高级语言接近人类语言，提供了更高层次的抽象易于编写和维护，可移植性好，支持多种编程范式需要通过编译器或解释器转换为机器语言，可能存在一定的性能损失C，Java， Python 等
IMPORTANT
  • ① 使用机器语言进行编程，对于程序员来说，简直就是噩梦，尤其当功能比较多，程序比较大的时候，不但编写麻烦，需要频繁查询指令手册，而且排查错误非常麻烦，要直接面对一堆二进制数据，想想都令人崩溃（上古程序员，可能真的不是“人”，而是“异类”）。此外，使用二进制指令编程，步骤非常繁琐，要考虑各种边界情况和底层问题，开发效率十分低下。
  • ② 这就倒逼程序员开发出了编程语言，提供自己的生产力，如：汇编语言、C 语言、C++ 语言、Java 语言、Go 语言等等，都是在逐步提高开发效率。至此，编程终于不再是只有极客才能做的事情，不怎么了解计算机的初学者在经过一定时间的训练后也可以编写出有模有样的程序。
  • ③ 在实际开发中，随着计算机科学的发展，现代化的高级编程语言，如：C++ 语言、Java 语言、Go 语言等，因其强大的表达能力、良好的可移植性和易用性，成为了日常软件开发的主流选择。
第三章：初识 C 语言 ​
3.1 C 语言究竟是一门怎样的编程语言？ ​
  • 对于绝大多数程序员而言，C 语言是学习编程的第一门语言，很少有不了解 C 语言的程序员。
NOTE
许多著名编程语言的创造者和计算机科学领域的大佬都有学习和使用过 C 语言，如：詹姆斯·高斯林（James Gosling，Java 之父），比雅尼·斯特劳斯特鲁普（Bjarne Stroustrup，C++ 之父），吉多·范罗苏姆（Guido van Rossum，Python 之父），林纳斯·托瓦兹（Linus Torvalds，Linux 之父）等。
  • C 语言除了能让我们了解编程的相关概念，带领我们走进编程的大门，还能让我们明白程序的运行原理，如：
    • ① 计算机的各个部件是如何协同工作的？
    • ② 程序在内存中是一种怎样的状态？
    • ③ 程序在计算机中到底是如何执行的，以及它的生命周期是什么？
    • ④ 操作系统和应用程序之间，又有着怎样的爱恨情仇？
    • ⑤ ...
  • 这些底层知识决定了我们的发展高度，也决定了我们的职业生涯。如果我们希望能在计算机行业中长远的发展，就必须学习这些相关的底层知识。
IMPORTANT
这些底层知识，包括不限于：数据结构和算法、计算机组成原理、操作系统、计算机网络、设计模式以及编译原理（了解即可）：
  • 数据结构和算法：主要研究数据的组织方式和处理方法，包括：线性表、树、图等数据结构，以及基本的算法思想和分析方法。
  • 计算机组成原理：主要研究计算机系统的硬件组成和工作原理，包括：数字电路、存储器、中央处理器等内容。
  • 操作系统：主要研究计算机系统的软件组成和工作原理，包括：进程/线程/并发（重点）、内存布局和内存管理（重点）、文件系统和磁盘 IO 等内容，以及基本的操作系统概念和设计思路。
  • 计算机网络：主要研究计算机之间的通信原理和协议，包括：网络体系结构（OSI 模型）、传输协议、网络安全等内容，以及基本的网络概念和技术。重点学习 TCP/IP 协议栈、socket 通信（三/四次握手、select、poll、epoll）、HTTPS/HTTP、长链接等内容。
  • 设计模式：是软件设计中常见问题的通用解决方案。不过，在 C 语言中通常是没有的，因为其是面向过程的编程语言，而 C++ 和 Java 等面向对象的编程语言是有设计模式的。
  • 编译原理：主要研究如何将高级编程语言转换为机器语言，有词法分析、语法分析、语义分析、中间代码生成、优化、代码生成等步骤，了解即可。
  • C 语言的概念少，词汇少，只包含了基本的编程元素，相对比较简单。对于初学者来说，学习 C 语言的时间短，成本小。
NOTE
很多人之所以觉得 C 语言难，就是因为栽倒在 C 语言的指针那边（相对比其他的现代化编程语言而言，C 语言的指针确实足够底层和麻烦，需要掌握的细节很多）；但是，一旦有所突破，学习之路就会一马平川。
3.2 C 语言的由来 ​
  • 1969 年，美国贝尔实验室的肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson）和丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）一起开发了 Unix 操作系统。Unix 最初是使用汇编语言编写的，依赖于计算机硬件。为了程序的可读性和可移植性，它们决定使用高级语言重写。但是。当时的高级语言无法满足他们的要求，肯·汤姆森就在 BCPL 语言的基础上发明了 B 语言。
  • 1972 年，丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）在 B 语言的基础上重新设计了一种新的语言，这种新语言取代了 B 语言，即 C 语言。
  • 1973 年，整个 Unix 系统都使用 C 语言重写（重构），大大增强了 Unix 在不同硬件平台的可移植性，这标志着 Unix 的初步成熟，也标志着 C 语言的初步成熟（因为 C 语言可以用于大型项目开发了）。
NOTE
C 语言最初是作为 Unix 系统的开发工具而发明的，它的初衷非常简单，就是被设计成一种非常高效的、可以操作硬件的系统级编程语言，然后帮助团队开发 Unix 操作系统。
  • 此后，这种语言快速流传，广泛用于各种操作系统和系统软件的开发，如：Unix、MS-DOS、Microsoft Windows 以及 Linux 等。
  • 1988 年，美国国家标准协会（ANSI）正式将 C 语言标准化，标志着 C 语言开始稳定和规范化。
3.3 为什么要学习 C 语言？ ​
  • ① C 语言具有可移植好、跨平台的特点：用 C 语言编写的代码可以在不同的操作系统和硬件平台上编译和运行。
NOTE
  • ① C 语言的最原始的设计目的，就是为了将 Unix 操作系统移植到其他的计算机架构上，这使得它从一开始就非常注重可移植性。
  • ② 这边所说的 C 语言的可移植性，是和汇编语言相比的；如果 C 语言和现代化的高级编程语言相比，可移植性还是很差的，如：Java 的口号是“一次编译，到处运行”，Go 的口号是“一次编译，到处执行”。
  • ② C 语言在许多领域应用广泛。 
    • 操作系统：C 广泛用于开发操作系统，如：Unix、Linux 和 Windows。
    • 嵌入式系统：C 是一种用于开发嵌入式系统（如：微控制器、微处理器和其它电子设备）的流程语言。
    • 系统软件：C 用于开发设备驱动程序、编译器和汇编器等系统软件。
    • 网络：C 语言广泛用于开发网络应用程序，例如：Web 服务器、网络协议和网络驱动程序。
    • 数据库系统：C 用于开发数据库系统，例如：Oracle、MySQL 和 PostgreSQL 。
    • 游戏：由于 C 能够处理低级硬件交互，因此经常用于开发计算机游戏。
    • 人工智能：C 用于开发人工智能和机器学习的应用程序，例如：神经网络和深度学习算法。
    • 科学应用：C 用于开发科学应用程序，例如：仿真软件和数值分析工具。
    • 金融应用：C 用于开发股票市场分析和交易系统等金融应用。
  • ③ C 语言能够直接对硬件进行操作、管理内存以及和操作系统对话，这使得它是一种非常接近底层的语言，非常适合写需要和硬件交互、有极高性能要求的程序。
NOTE
  • C 语言毕竟诞生的时间非常早（20 世纪 70 年代），属于 70 后了，有点落后于现在的时代，虽然执行效率高（仅次于汇编语言），但是开发效率低。
  • 随着时间的推移，人们在 C 语言的基础上增加了面向对象的机制（软件危机），形成了一门新的编程语言，它的名字是 C++ 。
  • 但是，C++ 的特性实在是太多了（因为 C++ 兼容 C，并增加了很多自己独有的特性，可以是当今最复杂的编程语言，没有之一），于是人们在 C++ 的基础上，删减了一些非必要的特性，就形成了 Java 和 C# ，也可以认为 Java 和 C# 是 C++--。
  • 当然，近年来，Go 语言也很火，它的设计者之一就是 Unix 操作系统的的开发者肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson），Go 诞生的背景据说是肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson）在 C++ 委员会在为其演讲 C++ 新特性的时候，觉得 C++ 新特性太多太复杂，于是就开发了 Go 语言；所以，Go 语言中有很多 C 语言的身影。
  • 其实，在 C 语言之后的许多编程语言，或多或少都参考了 C 语言；所以，编程界流传了一句话：汇编生 C ，C 生万物。
  • ④ 学习 C 语言有助于快速上手其他编程语言，如：C++（原先是 C 语言的一个扩展，在 C 语言的基础上嫁接了面向对象编程思想）、C#、Java 等，这些语言都继承或深受 C 语言的影响和启发。
  • ⑤ C 语言长盛不衰。C 语言至今，依然是最广泛使用、最流行的编程语言之一，包括很多大学将 C 语言作为计算机教学的入门语言，拥有庞大而活跃的用户社区，这意味着有许多资源和库可供开发人员使用。
  • ⑥ C 语言容易学习，适合入门。和 Java、C++、Python 等更加现代化的高级编程语言相比，C 语言涉及的概念少，附带的标准库小，整体比较简单，容易学习，非常适合初学者入门。
3.4 计算机语言排行榜 ​
  • TIOBE 是一个流行编程语言排行，每月更新。排名权重基于世界范围内工程师数量，Google、Bing、Yahoo! 、Wikipedia、Amazon、Youtube 和百度这些主流的搜索引擎，也将作为排名权重的参考指标。
  • 计算机语言走势图：
3.5 C 语言到底能做什么？ ​
3.5.1 概述 ​
  • 我们知道，这个世界上的编程语言太多太多。其中，最流行的编程语言就是 TOBIE 榜单上的前 50 名。
  • 从应用的范围上来讲，编程语言大致可以分为以下两类，如下所示：
    • ① 通用型编程语言：这些语言设计的目的是能够用于开发多种类型的应用程序，不局限于某个特定领域。它们通常拥有丰富的库和框架支持，可以应用于系统编程、应用开发、Web开发、数据分析等多个领域。
    • ② 专用型编程语言：这些语言是为了解决特定领域的问题而设计的，通常在该领域中表现出色。虽然它们可以在一定程度上用于其他领域，但其核心设计和优化是针对某个特定应用场景的。
  • 常见的专用型编程语言，如下所示：
专用型编程语言描述
SQL专门用于数据库查询和管理，尽管可以嵌入其他编程语言中，但其主要应用是数据库操作。
R主要用于统计分析和数据可视化，广泛应用于数据科学和研究领域。
MATLAB主要用于数值计算、算法开发和数据可视化，广泛应用于工程和科学领域。
VHDL/Verilog用于硬件描述和数字电路设计，主要应用于电子工程领域。
  • 常见的通用型编程语言，如下所示：
通用型编程语言描述
Python广泛应用于Web开发、数据科学、自动化脚本、人工智能等。
Java用于企业级应用、移动应用开发（Android）、Web 开发等。
C++可用于系统编程、游戏开发、嵌入式系统等多个领域。
JavaScript最初用于 Web 前端开发，现在也广泛用于服务器端（Node.js）、桌面应用开发（Electron）等。
NOTE
C 语言是一门通用型的编程语言，并没有针对某个领域进行优化。但是，C 语言也有很多常见的应用领域。
3.5.2 C 语言的常见应用领域 ​
  • C 语言的常见应用领域，如下所示： 
    • ① 单片机或嵌入式开发：单片机通常是一个集成度较高的微控制器，资源有限，如：家电控制、自动化设备、传感器数据采集、智能玩具、汽车电子。嵌入式系统是一个计算机系统，嵌入在更大设备中，用来执行专门的任务。它通常包含硬件和软件两部分，具有专用性、实时性、资源受限等特点，如：消费电子（智能手机、智能手表等）、医疗设备、工业控制系统、汽车电子系统（ECU、ABS）、物联网设备等。
    • ② 上位机开发（桌面软件开发）：其实，这部分的市场已经被其它编程语言蚕食了，如：C++ 的 QT、GTK，Java 的 Swing 、JavaFx，Dart 的 Flutter ，因为 C 语言太过于底层，本身不直接支持跨平台，而且没有丰富的库和框架支持。
    • ③ 系统组件开发： 
      • 基础组件，如：文件系统、进程管理、用户界面（CLI + GUI）等。
      • 核心算法，如：加密/安全算法（MD5、SHA、AES、RSA、SSL）、调度算法（进程和线程调度、内存页面置换）、LZ 压缩算法、CRC 等数据校验算法、随机数生成算法等。
      • 硬件驱动，如：声卡驱动、显卡驱动、网卡驱动、蓝牙驱动、键盘和鼠标驱动、扫描仪驱动、打印机驱动、USB 驱动等。
      • 通信协议，如：TCP/IP 协议族（UDP、DNS、路由选择）、HTTP/HTTPS 、SMTP/POP3/IMAP、FTP、NFC 等。
    • ④ 开发操作系统：这是 C 语言的初衷，它就是为开发操作系统而生的，如：UNIX 内核、Linux 内核以及 Windows 内核，主要就是使用 C 语言开发。
    • ⑤ 开发其它编程语言： 
      • 有些编程语言的编译器（解释器）和标准库就使用 C 语言开发，如： Python、PHP、Rust、Perl。
      • 有些编程语言是在 C 语言的基础上进行的扩展，如： C++、Objective-C、Swift。
    • ⑥ 信号处理：C 语言在电气工程领域也有很多用途，它可以使用信号处理算法来管理微处理器、微控制器等集成电路。
    • ⑦ 音视频处理：C 语言的速度非常快，能够快速地对音频和视频数据进行处理。音频和视频数据通常比较大，需要高效的算法和数据结构来处理，而 C 语言运行速度非常快，能够及时处理这些数据。C 语言提供了丰富的底层库和工具，如：FFmpeg、OpenCV 等，这些库和工具可以方便地对音频和视频数据进行编码、解码、剪辑、处理和转换等操作。
    • ⑧ 数据库开发：数据库是软件领域的基础设施，它的性能直接影响整个应用程序的运行效率，所以必须使用一种高效的语言进行开发。使用 C 语言开发的数据库有：MySQL、SQLite、PostgreSQL 等。
    • ⑨ ...
IMPORTANT
虽然 C 语言的开发场景貌似看起来很多；但是，使用 C 语言的场景几乎就是：底层/系统开发 + 关键组件/模块的开发 + 贴近硬件的开发，这些开发场景非常关注运行效率，或者响应时间，或者硬件资源。
3.6 不学 C 语言，行吗？ ​
  • C 语言相比于其它的现代化高级编程语言而言，如：Java、Go 等，实在是太老了；如果不打算搞嵌入式开发，即便学了，一时半会也用不上。但是，几乎所有大学的计算机/软件专业都将 C 语言作为必修课，这又是为什么呢？
  • 其实，是因为 C 语言是一门基础语言，很多其它的课程都依赖 C 语言。如果你不了解 C 语言，很多课程你是理解不了的，如下所示： 
    • ① 编译原理课程通常是以 C 语言为例进行讲解，因为 C 语言的编译过程相对简单、规范和透明，适合教学。
    • ② 数据结构课程通常也是使用 C 语言进行编程，因为 C 语言比较底层，能够让大家看到数据结构的各种细节。另外，数据结构是一种被频繁调用的组件，必须要追求效率，C 语言再合适不过了。
    • ③ 学习操作系统原理（内存、进程、线程、通信等）也要具备 C 语言基础，否则是学不明白的。
    • ...
  • C 语言是一门面向计算机的语言，它能帮助我们快速了解底层；而其它的高级语言（Python、Java、C# 等）是面向用户的，它能让我们快速上手，搞出点实用的工具来，比如：桌面软件、网站、APP 等。
NOTE
  • ① 借助 C 语言学习原理，相当于修炼内功；使用其它语言开发程序，相当于精通招式。
  • ② 一个既有扎实“内功”又精通“招式”的程序员，无疑能够更好地应对各种编程挑战。
  • 从整体上讲，计算机软件大概可以分为两种： 
    • 一种是基础设施，如：操作系统、数据库、浏览器、云计算系统、大数据系统、编译器/编程语言、通信协议、区块链、标准库/运行库、算法实现等。
    • 一种是应用软件，如：桌面软件、APP、网站、小程序等。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 内功不扎实的话，开发一般的应用软件可能没什么问题。但是，如果想要开发高性能的软件，或者开发基础设施，那是绝对是不行的。
  • ② 万丈高楼平地起，勿在浮沙筑高台！！！
3.7 C 语言的版本选择 ​
3.7.1 概述 ​
  • C 语言是在 B 语言的基础上改进而来的，目的是为了更好地开发 Unix 操作系统。到了 1973 年，Unix 的大部分功能都被 C 语言重写，这标志着 C 语言的初步成熟，因为它可以用于大型项目了。
  • 后来，C 语言被多次改进，越来越强大，为了规范 C 语言的特性和功能，人们发布了多个 C 语言标准。
3.7.2 版本 1（K＆R C） ​
  • K&R C 指的是 C 语言的原始版本。1978 年，C 语言的发明者布莱恩·柯林（Brian Kernighan）和丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）合写了一本著名的教材《C 编程语言》（The C programming language）。
NOTE
由于 C 语言还没有成文的语法标准，这本书就成了公认标准，以两位作者的姓氏首字母作为版本简称 “K&R C”。
3.7.3 版本 2（ANSI C，又称 C89 或 C90） ​
  • 到了 80 年代，C 语言越来越流行，广泛被业界使用，从大型主机到小型微机，各个厂商群雄并起，推出了多款 C 语言的编译器。这些编译器根据行业和厂商自己的需求，进行了各种扩展，C 语言进入了春秋战国时代，逐渐演变成一个松散杂乱的大家族。
  • 为统一 C 语言版本，1989 年，美国国家标准协会（ANSI）制定了一套 C 语言标准，并于次年被国际标准化组织（ISO）通过。它被称为 “ANSI C”，也可以按照发布年份，称为 “C89 或 C90”。
NOTE
目前常用的编译器，如：MSVC（Microsoft Visual C++）、GCC、LLVM Clang 等，都能很好地支持 ANSI C 的内容。
3.7.4 版本 3（C99） ​
  • C 语言标准的第一次大型修订，发生在 1999 年，增加了许多语言特性，如：双斜杠（ // ）的注释语法，可变长度数组、灵活的数组成员、复数、内联函数和指定的初始值设定项，这个版本称为 C99，是目前最流行的 C 版本。
NOTE
这个时候的 C 语言编译器基本已经成熟，各个组织对 C99 的支持所表现出来的兴趣不同：
  • 当 GCC 和其它一些商业编译器支持 C99 的大部分特性的时候。
  • 微软和 Borland 却似乎对此不感兴趣，或者说没有足够的资源和动力来改进编译器。
最终导致不同的编译器在部分语法上存在差异。典型的例子就是：ANSI C 规定，只能用常量表示数组的长度，而 C99 取消了这个限制，数组的长度也可以用变量表示（可变长度数组）。对于 C99 的这个新改动，GCC 和 Clang 是支持的，而 MSVC 却不支持。
3.7.5 版本 4（C11） ​
  • 2011 年，标准化组织再一次对 C 语言进行修订，增加了_Generic、static_assert 和原子类型限定符，这个版本称为 C11。
NOTE
  • ① 需要强调的是，修订标准的原因并不是因为原标准不能用，而是需要跟进新的技术。
  • ② 支持此标准的主流 C 语言编译器有 GCC、LLVM Clang、Intel C++ Compile 等。
3.7.6 版本 5（C17） ​
  • C11 标准在 2017 年进行了修补，但发布是在 2018 年。新版本只是解决了 C11 的一些缺陷，没有引入任何新功能，这个版本称为 C17。
3.7.7 版本 6（C23） ​
  • 2023 年发布，计划进一步增强安全性，消除实现定义的行为，引入模块化语言概念等新特性，使 C 语言在安全和可靠性方面有重大提高。
第四章：C 语言的学习技巧 ​
4.1 如何学习 C 语言？ ​
  • 对于大部分的初学者， 学习 C 语言的目的可能是为了成为一名合格的程序员，开发出优秀的软件。但是，在学习了 C 语言的基本语法后，却发现只能在控制台（黑底白字）上玩玩，没有漂亮的用户界面以及人性化的交互。于是，开始学习数据结构、算法、数据库、操作系统，越陷越深，越来越迷茫，不知道学习 C 语言能做什么，认为学习编程很难，开始怀疑自己，直到放弃！！！
  • 其实，C 语言本身就是一门非常简单的语言，提供的实用功能不多，大部分的时候需要借助操作系统、第三方库以及以及一些硬件，如：单片机等，才能发挥它的威力！！！
IMPORTANT
  • ① 学习 C 语言仅仅是让你踏上程序员之路的第一步而已，只学习 C 语言也做不了什么。
  • ② 系统、扎实的学习 C 语言可以让你了解底层硬件、一些简单的数据结构和算法，并培养计算机思维。
  • 前文，我们提过：C 语言是一门通用性的语言，并没有针对某个领域进行优化。并且，在实际项目中，C 语言主要用于比较底层的开发，例如： 
    • Windows、Linux、Unix 等操作系统的内核 90% 以上都使用 C 语言开发（Rust 语言有望未来，在操作系统开发中占据一席之地，特别是在对安全性和性能要求极高的领域）。
    • 开发硬件驱动，让硬件和操作系统连接起来，这样用户才能更有效的使用硬件。
    • 单片机和嵌入式属于软硬件的结合，是使用 C 语言最多的地方。
    • 开发系统组件或服务，用于支撑上层应用。
    • 如果对软件某个模块，例如：算法和搜索部分的效率要求较高，也可以使用 C 语言来开发。
    • ……
  • 貌似感觉 C 语言的应用还是很多的啊，那为什么感觉学习 C 语言还是做不了什么？原因除了 C 语言通常都是开发最底层的应用之外，最重要的一点就是生态。
IMPORTANT
现代化的高级编程语言的流行程度，除了和编程语言的设计是否优秀有关，最主要的原因就是生态。
  • ① 很多编程语言都自带标准库（语言本身提供的，开箱即用），如：Java、Go 等。
  • ② 很多编程语言都有自己的包管理器（用于管理第三方库）解决方案，如：Java 中的 Maven、Gradle、Go 中的 go modules ，JavaScript 的 npm 等。
遗憾的是，C 语言的标准库非常简单，只有输入输出、文件操作、日期时间、字符串处理、内存管理，对于网络编程、GUI、数据库、并发等需要大量的第三方库或操作系统的功能来扩展 C 语言的功能（Java 语言、Go 语言等其他的现代化高级编程语言，都是直接将这些常见的开发场景内置到标准库中，开箱即用，极大的降低了软件开发的难度）。C 语言的第三方库也不是很多（和其它现代化高级编程语言相比，C 语言的大多数的第三方库都是底层库，支持应用开发的库寥寥无几，只有一个 GTK 库能够开发出桌面软件，几乎没有网站开发以及 APP 开发相关的库），社区也不是很活跃（和其它现代化高级编程语言相比），更别提缺少自己的包管理器。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 换言之，在实际工作中，C 语言几乎是不用做软件、网站、APP 等这些应用层开发，其它的编程语言能够更好地完成任务，没必要非得使用 C 语言，C 语言基本都是用来做底层开发，也就是看不见摸不着的、在后台默默提供服务的那些项目，而这样的项目对初学者来说基本没有实用价值，初学者也不知道它们该怎么使用。
  • ② 初学者想要的 C 语言没有，C 语言能做的初学者用不到，就是这种矛盾，导致初学者非常迷茫。
  • ③ 有人可能会问，C 语言不是还可以用来开发单片机或者嵌入式吗？是的没错，但是这个方向是软硬件结合的，不是在我们的电脑上进行开发，而是在特殊的板子上进行开发，并且还需要学习数字电路、模拟电路、8051/ARM、RTOS、嵌入式 Linux 等方面的知识，只学 C 语言也没有用武之地。
  • ④ 如果你觉得学了 C 语言没用，那么恭喜你，你是对的，应用层的开发一般真的用不上它。
  • ⑤ 但是，没用也要学，学习 C 语言并不一定是要应用它，C 语言可以夯实你的编程基础，尤其是数据结构、算法、内存、线程、进程、通信、操作系统、编译原理等底层的计算机知识，没有 C 语言基础是学不好的。
  • ⑥ 这些底层知识并不一定能够直接应用在实际开发中，但是它们会让你有底气，会让你透彻地理解编程概念，会让你站的“低”看得远，会让你避免很多低级错误，会让你心中有“架构师”的思维。
IMPORTANT
不过，现在 C 语言社区也开始诞生了一些包管理器，如：Conan 和 vcpkg ；也有自己的项目构建工具，如：cmake 、xmake 等。
NOTE
JavaScript 的作者 Brendan Eich（布兰登·艾奇） 曾经这么说：“与其说我爱 JavaScript，不如说我恨它。它是 C 语言和 Self 语言一夜情的产物（致敬 C 语言）。十八世纪英国文学家约翰逊博士说得好："它的优秀之处并非原创，它的原创之处并不优秀。"”
4.2 项目构建工具和包管理器 ​
4.2.1 概述 ​
  • 项目构建工具和包管理器在软件开发中扮演着不同的角色，它们虽然有时会有重叠的功能，但主要关注的点是不同的。
4.2.2 项目构建工具 ​
  • 项目构建工具是用于自动化编译、测试、打包、部署等一系列任务的软件工具。它们帮助开发者简化和管理整个软件开发生命周期中的各个步骤，尤其是在构建过程中的复杂性管理上。
  • 其功能有： 
    • 编译代码：自动编译源代码（如 ：.java、.c 等）为可执行文件或中间文件（如：.class 文件）。
    • 运行测试：集成单元测试、集成测试，自动运行测试用例并生成报告。
    • 打包：将编译后的代码、依赖库、资源文件等打包成可分发的格式（如：JAR、WAR、可执行文件等）。
    • 依赖管理：自动下载、更新和管理项目所需的第三方库（这部分功能有时与包管理器重叠）。
    • 部署：将打包后的应用程序自动部署到测试环境、生产环境等。
    • 任务自动化：除了基本的构建流程外，还可以自动化执行一些常见任务，如：代码检查、文档生成等。
  • 常用的项目构建工具： 
    • Maven（Java）：一个流行的构建工具和依赖管理工具，广泛用于 Java 项目。
    • Gradle（Java、Kotlin、Groovy）：一个灵活的构建工具，支持声明式的构建脚本和多种语言。
    • Make（C/C++）：一个经典的构建工具，使用 Makefile 来定义构建规则和依赖关系。
    • CMake（C/C++）：一个跨平台的构建系统，帮助生成标准的构建文件，如：Makefile 或 Visual Studio 项目文件。
    • ……
4.2.3 包管理器 ​
  • 包管理器是用于自动化安装、更新、配置和管理软件包及其依赖关系的工具。它主要关注于获取和管理项目所需的第三方库或工具包，并确保它们正确地集成到项目中。
  • 其功能有： 
    • 依赖管理：根据项目配置文件（如：package.json、requirements.txt）自动下载和安装项目所需的依赖包。
    • 版本控制：管理包的版本，允许开发者指定某个特定版本或版本范围，确保项目中的库版本一致性。
    • 包的发布和共享：开发者可以通过包管理器发布自己的库，并且共享给社区或组织内部的其他项目使用。
    • 环境隔离：有些包管理器提供虚拟环境功能，可以将不同项目的依赖隔离开，避免版本冲突。
    • 更新和卸载：包管理器可以自动更新依赖包到最新的兼容版本或卸载不再需要的包。
  • 常见的包管理器： 
    • npm（Node.js）：用于管理 JavaScript 和 Node.js 项目的包和模块。
    • pip（Python）：用于安装和管理 Python 的软件包。
    • Cargo（Rust）：Rust 编程语言的包管理器和构建工具。
    • Yarn（JavaScript）：是 npm 的替代品，提供更快和更可靠的包管理体验。
    • Homebrew（macOS）：用于 macOS 系统下的命令行工具和库的管理。
    • ……
4.2.3 注意事项 ​
  • 对于 Java 项目中的 Maven 或 Gradle 而言，其不仅是项目构建工具也是包管理工具。
NOTE
  • ① Gradle 也支持原生项目的开发，如：C 和 C++ 。
  • ② 不过，目前而言，业界开发 C/C++ 项目时，使用最多的项目构建工具和包管理器是 Cmake 和 Conan 。
4.3 C 语言为什么没有应用层开发的库？ ​
  • C 语言是一门“古老”的语言了，它只支持面向过程编程，不支持面向对象编程和泛型编程，在中大型的应用层项目开发中，C 语言已经显得捉襟见肘了，C++、Java、Python、C#、JavaScript 等其他编程语言能够更好地胜任，为 C 语言开发应用层的库简直是费力不讨好，所以几乎没人这么做。
  • GTK 算是一个应用层的库，它使用 C 语言开发，但是为了适应市场，GTK 也提供了其它编程语言的接口，如：C++、Python 等。
  • 先不用管面向过程、面向对象、泛型这些晦涩的编程概念；简单地理解就是，C 语言支持的特性少，用起来费劲，开发效率低，而 C++、Java、Python、C#、JavaScript 等支持的特性多，用起来方便，开发效率高。
  • C 语言的优势是运行效率极高，这正是底层开发所看重的。底层开发有时候就是一个模块，或者是一个服务，规模不算大，但是对效率有严格的要求，此时用 C 语言就非常合适，所以针对底层开发的 C 语言库较多，因为它们有非常大的实用价值。
第五章：附录 ​
5.1 嵌入式领域中的 C 语言 ​
5.1.1 概述 ​
  • C 语言在 C51、STM32 和 ARM 平台上的应用场景非常广泛，涵盖了各种嵌入式系统的开发需求。
5.1.2 C51（8051 系列微控制器） ​
  • 背景：8051 是由 Intel 于 1980 年设计的一种 8 位微控制器架构。它具有指令集简单、结构紧凑的特点，广泛应用于低端嵌入式系统中。
  • 开发工具：C51 是指针对 8051 系列微控制器的 C 语言编译器，如：Keil C51。这种编译器将 C 语言代码编译为适合 8051 架构的汇编代码。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 8051 微控制器上的应用使得开发更加高效和可维护。尽管 8051 的硬件资源有限，但 C 语言仍然能够在不损失性能的前提下提供高级编程的便利。
  • 应用场景： 
    • 简单的控制系统：家用电器（微波炉、洗衣机、空调）的控制板等。这些设备通常不需要复杂的运算能力，但要求可靠和稳定的控制。
    • 低功耗传感器接口：C51 微控制器常用于低功耗传感器的数据采集和传输，如：温度、湿度、压力传感器。
    • 工业自动化设备：用于简单的工业自动化控制，如：小型电机驱动、工业传感器数据处理和传输。
    • 电子玩具：许多简单的电子玩具使用 8051 系列微控制器来控制声音、LED 灯光、显示屏等。
NOTE
总结：C51 微控制器适用于资源受限、需要低成本的简单控制系统，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发！！！
5.1.3 STM32（STM32 系列微控制器） ​
  • 背景：STM32 是意法半导体（STMicroelectronics）推出的一系列基于 ARM Cortex-M 内核的 32 位微控制器。它们广泛用于需要高性能和低功耗的嵌入式应用中，如：工业控制、消费电子和物联网设备。
  • 开发工具：开发 STM32 微控制器通常使用 Keil、IAR Embedded Workbench 或 STM32CubeIDE 等开发环境。这些环境中使用的编程语言主要是 C（有时也包括 C++）。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 STM32 上的应用非常广泛，开发者可以利用它直接控制硬件寄存器，同时也能方便地使用 STM32 提供的 HAL（硬件抽象层）库或 LL（低层）库进行开发。C 语言在这个平台上不仅能实现底层控制，还能编写复杂的应用逻辑。
  • 应用场景： 
    • 物联网（IoT）设备：STM32 微控制器常用于各种物联网设备，如：智能家居控制系统、环境监测设备、可穿戴设备等。这些设备通常需要低功耗和强大的处理能力，并且需要支持多种通信协议，如：Wi-Fi、Bluetooth、LoRa。
    • 消费电子：智能手表、健身追踪器、电子书阅读器、无人机等，这些设备需要具备实时处理能力、低功耗和良好的外设支持。
    • 医疗设备：STM32 微控制器被广泛应用于便携式医疗设备中，如：血糖监测仪、心率监测器、便携式超声设备等，这些设备需要精确的传感器数据采集和处理。
    • 工业自动化控制：PLC（可编程逻辑控制器）、工业机器人、伺服电机控制等，STM32 能够处理复杂的控制算法和实时任务。
    • 汽车电子：用于汽车中的传感器管理、车载信息娱乐系统、车身控制系统（车窗、电动座椅调节等）。
NOTE
总结：STM32 微控制器在物联网、消费电子、医疗设备和工业控制等领域表现出色，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发，因为 C 语言允许直接进行硬件控制并支持复杂的应用开发。
5.1.3 ARM 架构（特别是 ARM Cortex 系列） ​
  • 背景：ARM 是一种广泛使用的处理器架构，特别是在嵌入式系统中，ARM Cortex 系列处理器（如 Cortex-M、Cortex-R 和 Cortex-A）非常流行。Cortex-M 系列主要用于微控制器，Cortex-R 用于实时系统，Cortex-A 则用于高性能嵌入式系统。
  • 开发工具：针对 ARM 架构的开发，常用工具包括 ARM Keil MDK、IAR、GCC for ARM 和 ARM Development Studio。这些工具均支持使用 C 语言进行开发。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 ARM 架构上的应用广泛。它被用于操作系统内核（如 FreeRTOS、Zephyr）、设备驱动、应用层逻辑等。在 ARM Cortex-M 和 Cortex-R 系列中，C 语言的高效性和低级别硬件访问能力是开发实时、低延迟系统的关键。
  • 应用场景： 
    • 高级嵌入式操作系统：ARM Cortex-A 系列处理器广泛用于运行 Linux、Android 等操作系统的嵌入式设备，如：智能手机、平板电脑、智能电视和车载娱乐系统。
    • 实时系统：ARM Cortex-R 系列处理器用于实时系统，如：汽车的 ABS（防抱死制动系统）、ESC（电子稳定控制系统），以及航空电子设备，这些系统要求极低的延迟和高可靠性。
    • 高性能物联网网关：Cortex-A 系列处理器可以用来开发支持多协议、多设备管理的物联网网关，这些网关通常需要强大的计算能力和多线程处理能力。
    • 边缘计算设备：在边缘计算场景中，ARM Cortex-A 处理器用于执行本地数据处理和决策，如：视频分析、图像处理、语音识别等。
    • 智能家居设备：ARM Cortex-M 系列微控制器广泛应用于智能家居产品，如：智能灯泡、智能音箱、家庭安全系统，这些设备需要高效的处理能力和低功耗。
    • 机器人控制系统：ARM Cortex-M 和 Cortex-A 系列处理器用于机器人系统的控制和通信，如：无人机、工业机器人、服务机器人等，处理复杂的运动控制、路径规划和传感器数据融合。
NOTE
总结：ARM Cortex 系列适用于从实时系统到高级嵌入式操作系统的各类应用，支持从低功耗控制到高性能计算的多种需求，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发，因为 C 语言不仅用于控制硬件，还广泛应用于操作系统和应用程序的开发。
5.2 C 和 C++ 的关系 ​
  • 起源和发展： 
    • C 语言：C 语言由丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）在 1972 年开发，最初用于开发操作系统，特别是 UNIX。它是一种结构化的编程语言，提供了对硬件的低级访问，且效率高，因此在系统编程中广泛使用。
    • C++ 语言：C++ 由比雅尼·斯特劳斯特鲁普（Bjarne Stroustrup）在 20 世纪 80 年代初开发，作为 C 语言的扩展。它引入了面向对象编程的概念，同时保留了 C 语言的高效性和底层操作能力。C++ 最初被称为 “C with Classes”（带类的 C），后来发展成一种独立的编程语言。
  • 兼容型： 
    • 语法兼容：C++ 几乎完全兼容 C 语言的语法，这意味着大多数 C 代码可以在 C++ 编译器下直接编译运行。C++ 可以看作是 C 语言的超集（虽然不完全是 100% 兼容，但差异较少）。
    • 扩展性：C++ 在 C 的基础上增加了许多新特性，如：类和对象、继承、多态、模板和异常处理等。这使得 C++ 不仅适合系统编程，还可以用于开发复杂的应用程序。
  • 编程范式： 
    • C 语言：主要是面向过程编程，强调的是函数调用和控制结构。
    • C++ 语言：支持多种编程范式，包括：面向过程、面向对象和泛型编程，使得开发者可以更灵活地选择适合的编程风格。
  • 性能与应用： 
    • 性能：由于 C++ 包含了更多的高级特性，它的编译时间和运行时开销可能比 C 稍高。但得益于其优化机制，C++ 仍然可以实现与 C 语言相近的性能。
    • 应用场景：C 语言仍然在嵌入式系统、驱动程序开发和其他对性能要求极高的场合中占据重要地位。而 C++ 则被广泛用于游戏开发、图形处理、大型软件系统等需要复杂结构和抽象的领域。
NOTE
C++ 是 C 语言的继承者和扩展，它保留了 C 语言的优势，并引入了更多现代编程语言的特性，使得它在更广泛的应用领域中得到应用。
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+0001,0001,000000010000 代表 STORE B, 16
  • 这种语言本质上是计算机能识别的唯一语言，人类很难理解；换言之，当时的程序员 99.9% 都是异类！！！

WARNING

  • ① 不同类型（CPU 架构，如：x86_64、arm 等）的处理器有不同的机器语言指令集，指令集架构（ISA）决定了机器语言的具体形式。
  • ② 换言之，机器语言与特定硬件架构紧密相关，机器语言程序几乎没有可移植性。

2.3.2 汇编语言（相当于人类的青铜&铁器时代） ​

  • 汇编语言使用助记符（如：MOV、ADD、SUB）代替二进制操作码，使程序更易于人类编写和理解；因此，汇编语言也被称为符号语言。

  • 汇编语言的优点是能编写高效率的程序；但是，缺点和机器语言没什么不同，汇编语言同样依赖于具体的计算机架构（面向机器），程序不具备跨平台的可移植性。

WARNING

  • ① 汇编语言，目前仍然应用于工业电子编程领域、软件的加密解密、计算机病毒分析等。
  • ② 汇编语言是编程语言的拓荒年代，它非常底层，直接和计算机硬件打交道，开发效率低，学习成本高。

2.3.3 高级语言（相当于人类的信息时代） ​

  • 高级语言是一种接近于人们使用习惯的程序设计语言。它允许程序员使用接近日常英语的指令来编写程序，程序中的符号和算式也和日常使用的数学公式差不多，接近于自然语言和数学语言，容易被人们掌握。

  • 高级语言独立于计算机硬件，有一定的通用性；计算机不能直接识别和执行用高级语言编写的程序，需要使用编译器或解释器转换为机器语言，才能被计算机识别和执行。

NOTE

  • ① 普遍使用的高级编程语言，有：C、C++、Java、Python、C#、JavaScript、Go、SQL 等。
  • ② C 语言是“面向过程”的编程语言，已经脱离了计算机硬件，可以用来设计和开发中等规模的程序。
  • ③ Java、C++、Python、C# 等都是“面向对象”的编程语言（它们在“面向过程”的基础上又增加了很多概念），可以用来设计和开发中大型规模的程序。

IMPORTANT

C 语言出现的时候，已经度过了编程语言的拓荒年代，具备了现代编程语言的特性，但是这个时候还没有出现“软件危机”，人们没有动力去开发更加高级的语言，所以也没有太复杂的编程思想；而之后出现的“面向对象”的编程思想解决了一部分在“软件危机”上的窘境。

2.3.4 总结 ​

  • 编写语言的对比，如下所示：
类别特征优点缺点示例
机器语言直接由计算机执行的二进制代码执行速度快编写困难，可读性差，与具体硬件强绑定二进制代码
汇编语言用助记符代替二进制代码的低级语言相对机器语言更易编写和理解，允许直接控制硬件资源依然需要了解硬件，不够抽象，与具体硬件或平台相关MOV，ADD 等助记符
高级语言接近人类语言，提供了更高层次的抽象易于编写和维护，可移植性好，支持多种编程范式需要通过编译器或解释器转换为机器语言，可能存在一定的性能损失C，Java， Python 等

IMPORTANT

  • ① 使用机器语言进行编程，对于程序员来说，简直就是噩梦，尤其当功能比较多，程序比较大的时候，不但编写麻烦，需要频繁查询指令手册，而且排查错误非常麻烦，要直接面对一堆二进制数据，想想都令人崩溃（上古程序员，可能真的不是“人”，而是“异类”）。此外，使用二进制指令编程，步骤非常繁琐，要考虑各种边界情况和底层问题，开发效率十分低下。
  • ② 这就倒逼程序员开发出了编程语言，提供自己的生产力，如：汇编语言、C 语言、C++ 语言、Java 语言、Go 语言等等，都是在逐步提高开发效率。至此，编程终于不再是只有极客才能做的事情，不怎么了解计算机的初学者在经过一定时间的训练后也可以编写出有模有样的程序。
  • ③ 在实际开发中，随着计算机科学的发展，现代化的高级编程语言，如：C++ 语言、Java 语言、Go 语言等，因其强大的表达能力、良好的可移植性和易用性，成为了日常软件开发的主流选择。

第三章：初识 C 语言 ​

3.1 C 语言究竟是一门怎样的编程语言？ ​

  • 对于绝大多数程序员而言，C 语言是学习编程的第一门语言，很少有不了解 C 语言的程序员。

NOTE

许多著名编程语言的创造者和计算机科学领域的大佬都有学习和使用过 C 语言，如：詹姆斯·高斯林（James Gosling，Java 之父），比雅尼·斯特劳斯特鲁普（Bjarne Stroustrup，C++ 之父），吉多·范罗苏姆（Guido van Rossum，Python 之父），林纳斯·托瓦兹（Linus Torvalds，Linux 之父）等。

  • C 语言除了能让我们了解编程的相关概念，带领我们走进编程的大门，还能让我们明白程序的运行原理，如：

    • ① 计算机的各个部件是如何协同工作的？
    • ② 程序在内存中是一种怎样的状态？
    • ③ 程序在计算机中到底是如何执行的，以及它的生命周期是什么？
    • ④ 操作系统和应用程序之间，又有着怎样的爱恨情仇？
    • ⑤ ...

  • 这些底层知识决定了我们的发展高度，也决定了我们的职业生涯。如果我们希望能在计算机行业中长远的发展，就必须学习这些相关的底层知识。

IMPORTANT

这些底层知识，包括不限于：数据结构和算法、计算机组成原理、操作系统、计算机网络、设计模式以及编译原理（了解即可）：

  • 数据结构和算法：主要研究数据的组织方式和处理方法，包括：线性表、树、图等数据结构，以及基本的算法思想和分析方法。

  • 计算机组成原理：主要研究计算机系统的硬件组成和工作原理，包括：数字电路、存储器、中央处理器等内容。

  • 操作系统：主要研究计算机系统的软件组成和工作原理，包括：进程/线程/并发（重点）、内存布局和内存管理（重点）、文件系统和磁盘 IO 等内容，以及基本的操作系统概念和设计思路。

  • 计算机网络：主要研究计算机之间的通信原理和协议，包括：网络体系结构（OSI 模型）、传输协议、网络安全等内容，以及基本的网络概念和技术。重点学习 TCP/IP 协议栈、socket 通信（三/四次握手、select、poll、epoll）、HTTPS/HTTP、长链接等内容。

  • 设计模式：是软件设计中常见问题的通用解决方案。不过，在 C 语言中通常是没有的，因为其是面向过程的编程语言，而 C++ 和 Java 等面向对象的编程语言是有设计模式的。

  • 编译原理：主要研究如何将高级编程语言转换为机器语言，有词法分析、语法分析、语义分析、中间代码生成、优化、代码生成等步骤，了解即可。

  • C 语言的概念少，词汇少，只包含了基本的编程元素，相对比较简单。对于初学者来说，学习 C 语言的时间短，成本小。

NOTE

很多人之所以觉得 C 语言难，就是因为栽倒在 C 语言的指针那边（相对比其他的现代化编程语言而言，C 语言的指针确实足够底层和麻烦，需要掌握的细节很多）；但是，一旦有所突破，学习之路就会一马平川。

3.2 C 语言的由来 ​

  • 1969 年，美国贝尔实验室的肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson）和丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）一起开发了 Unix 操作系统。Unix 最初是使用汇编语言编写的，依赖于计算机硬件。为了程序的可读性和可移植性，它们决定使用高级语言重写。但是。当时的高级语言无法满足他们的要求，肯·汤姆森就在 BCPL 语言的基础上发明了 B 语言。
  • 1972 年，丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）在 B 语言的基础上重新设计了一种新的语言，这种新语言取代了 B 语言，即 C 语言。

  • 1973 年，整个 Unix 系统都使用 C 语言重写（重构），大大增强了 Unix 在不同硬件平台的可移植性，这标志着 Unix 的初步成熟，也标志着 C 语言的初步成熟（因为 C 语言可以用于大型项目开发了）。

NOTE

C 语言最初是作为 Unix 系统的开发工具而发明的，它的初衷非常简单，就是被设计成一种非常高效的、可以操作硬件的系统级编程语言，然后帮助团队开发 Unix 操作系统。

  • 此后，这种语言快速流传，广泛用于各种操作系统和系统软件的开发，如：Unix、MS-DOS、Microsoft Windows 以及 Linux 等。

  • 1988 年，美国国家标准协会（ANSI）正式将 C 语言标准化，标志着 C 语言开始稳定和规范化。

3.3 为什么要学习 C 语言？ ​

  • ① C 语言具有可移植好、跨平台的特点：用 C 语言编写的代码可以在不同的操作系统和硬件平台上编译和运行。

NOTE

  • ① C 语言的最原始的设计目的，就是为了将 Unix 操作系统移植到其他的计算机架构上，这使得它从一开始就非常注重可移植性。
  • ② 这边所说的 C 语言的可移植性，是和汇编语言相比的；如果 C 语言和现代化的高级编程语言相比，可移植性还是很差的，如：Java 的口号是“一次编译，到处运行”，Go 的口号是“一次编译，到处执行”。
  • ② C 语言在许多领域应用广泛。
    • 操作系统：C 广泛用于开发操作系统，如：Unix、Linux 和 Windows。
    • 嵌入式系统：C 是一种用于开发嵌入式系统（如：微控制器、微处理器和其它电子设备）的流程语言。
    • 系统软件：C 用于开发设备驱动程序、编译器和汇编器等系统软件。
    • 网络：C 语言广泛用于开发网络应用程序，例如：Web 服务器、网络协议和网络驱动程序。
    • 数据库系统：C 用于开发数据库系统，例如：Oracle、MySQL 和 PostgreSQL 。
    • 游戏：由于 C 能够处理低级硬件交互，因此经常用于开发计算机游戏。
    • 人工智能：C 用于开发人工智能和机器学习的应用程序，例如：神经网络和深度学习算法。
    • 科学应用：C 用于开发科学应用程序，例如：仿真软件和数值分析工具。
    • 金融应用：C 用于开发股票市场分析和交易系统等金融应用。
  • ③ C 语言能够直接对硬件进行操作、管理内存以及和操作系统对话，这使得它是一种非常接近底层的语言，非常适合写需要和硬件交互、有极高性能要求的程序。

NOTE

  • C 语言毕竟诞生的时间非常早（20 世纪 70 年代），属于 70 后了，有点落后于现在的时代，虽然执行效率高（仅次于汇编语言），但是开发效率低。
  • 随着时间的推移，人们在 C 语言的基础上增加了面向对象的机制（软件危机），形成了一门新的编程语言，它的名字是 C++ 。
  • 但是，C++ 的特性实在是太多了（因为 C++ 兼容 C，并增加了很多自己独有的特性，可以是当今最复杂的编程语言，没有之一），于是人们在 C++ 的基础上，删减了一些非必要的特性，就形成了 Java 和 C# ，也可以认为 Java 和 C# 是 C++--。
  • 当然，近年来，Go 语言也很火，它的设计者之一就是 Unix 操作系统的的开发者肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson），Go 诞生的背景据说是肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson）在 C++ 委员会在为其演讲 C++ 新特性的时候，觉得 C++ 新特性太多太复杂，于是就开发了 Go 语言；所以，Go 语言中有很多 C 语言的身影。
  • 其实，在 C 语言之后的许多编程语言，或多或少都参考了 C 语言；所以，编程界流传了一句话：汇编生 C ，C 生万物。
  • ④ 学习 C 语言有助于快速上手其他编程语言，如：C++（原先是 C 语言的一个扩展，在 C 语言的基础上嫁接了面向对象编程思想）、C#、Java 等，这些语言都继承或深受 C 语言的影响和启发。
  • ⑤ C 语言长盛不衰。C 语言至今，依然是最广泛使用、最流行的编程语言之一，包括很多大学将 C 语言作为计算机教学的入门语言，拥有庞大而活跃的用户社区，这意味着有许多资源和库可供开发人员使用。
  • ⑥ C 语言容易学习，适合入门。和 Java、C++、Python 等更加现代化的高级编程语言相比，C 语言涉及的概念少，附带的标准库小，整体比较简单，容易学习，非常适合初学者入门。

3.4 计算机语言排行榜 ​

  • TIOBE 是一个流行编程语言排行，每月更新。排名权重基于世界范围内工程师数量，Google、Bing、Yahoo! 、Wikipedia、Amazon、Youtube 和百度这些主流的搜索引擎，也将作为排名权重的参考指标。

  • 计算机语言走势图：

3.5 C 语言到底能做什么？ ​

3.5.1 概述 ​

  • 我们知道，这个世界上的编程语言太多太多。其中，最流行的编程语言就是 TOBIE 榜单上的前 50 名。

  • 从应用的范围上来讲，编程语言大致可以分为以下两类，如下所示：

    • ① 通用型编程语言：这些语言设计的目的是能够用于开发多种类型的应用程序，不局限于某个特定领域。它们通常拥有丰富的库和框架支持，可以应用于系统编程、应用开发、Web开发、数据分析等多个领域。
    • ② 专用型编程语言：这些语言是为了解决特定领域的问题而设计的，通常在该领域中表现出色。虽然它们可以在一定程度上用于其他领域，但其核心设计和优化是针对某个特定应用场景的。

  • 常见的专用型编程语言，如下所示：

专用型编程语言描述
SQL专门用于数据库查询和管理，尽管可以嵌入其他编程语言中，但其主要应用是数据库操作。
R主要用于统计分析和数据可视化，广泛应用于数据科学和研究领域。
MATLAB主要用于数值计算、算法开发和数据可视化，广泛应用于工程和科学领域。
VHDL/Verilog用于硬件描述和数字电路设计，主要应用于电子工程领域。
  • 常见的通用型编程语言，如下所示：
通用型编程语言描述
Python广泛应用于Web开发、数据科学、自动化脚本、人工智能等。
Java用于企业级应用、移动应用开发（Android）、Web 开发等。
C++可用于系统编程、游戏开发、嵌入式系统等多个领域。
JavaScript最初用于 Web 前端开发，现在也广泛用于服务器端（Node.js）、桌面应用开发（Electron）等。

NOTE

C 语言是一门通用型的编程语言，并没有针对某个领域进行优化。但是，C 语言也有很多常见的应用领域。

3.5.2 C 语言的常见应用领域 ​

  • C 语言的常见应用领域，如下所示：
    • ① 单片机或嵌入式开发：单片机通常是一个集成度较高的微控制器，资源有限，如：家电控制、自动化设备、传感器数据采集、智能玩具、汽车电子。嵌入式系统是一个计算机系统，嵌入在更大设备中，用来执行专门的任务。它通常包含硬件和软件两部分，具有专用性、实时性、资源受限等特点，如：消费电子（智能手机、智能手表等）、医疗设备、工业控制系统、汽车电子系统（ECU、ABS）、物联网设备等。
    • ② 上位机开发（桌面软件开发）：其实，这部分的市场已经被其它编程语言蚕食了，如：C++ 的 QT、GTK，Java 的 Swing 、JavaFx，Dart 的 Flutter ，因为 C 语言太过于底层，本身不直接支持跨平台，而且没有丰富的库和框架支持。
    • ③ 系统组件开发：
      • 基础组件，如：文件系统、进程管理、用户界面（CLI + GUI）等。
      • 核心算法，如：加密/安全算法（MD5、SHA、AES、RSA、SSL）、调度算法（进程和线程调度、内存页面置换）、LZ 压缩算法、CRC 等数据校验算法、随机数生成算法等。
      • 硬件驱动，如：声卡驱动、显卡驱动、网卡驱动、蓝牙驱动、键盘和鼠标驱动、扫描仪驱动、打印机驱动、USB 驱动等。
      • 通信协议，如：TCP/IP 协议族（UDP、DNS、路由选择）、HTTP/HTTPS 、SMTP/POP3/IMAP、FTP、NFC 等。
    • ④ 开发操作系统：这是 C 语言的初衷，它就是为开发操作系统而生的，如：UNIX 内核、Linux 内核以及 Windows 内核，主要就是使用 C 语言开发。
    • ⑤ 开发其它编程语言：
      • 有些编程语言的编译器（解释器）和标准库就使用 C 语言开发，如： Python、PHP、Rust、Perl。
      • 有些编程语言是在 C 语言的基础上进行的扩展，如： C++、Objective-C、Swift。
    • ⑥ 信号处理：C 语言在电气工程领域也有很多用途，它可以使用信号处理算法来管理微处理器、微控制器等集成电路。
    • ⑦ 音视频处理：C 语言的速度非常快，能够快速地对音频和视频数据进行处理。音频和视频数据通常比较大，需要高效的算法和数据结构来处理，而 C 语言运行速度非常快，能够及时处理这些数据。C 语言提供了丰富的底层库和工具，如：FFmpeg、OpenCV 等，这些库和工具可以方便地对音频和视频数据进行编码、解码、剪辑、处理和转换等操作。
    • ⑧ 数据库开发：数据库是软件领域的基础设施，它的性能直接影响整个应用程序的运行效率，所以必须使用一种高效的语言进行开发。使用 C 语言开发的数据库有：MySQL、SQLite、PostgreSQL 等。
    • ⑨ ...

IMPORTANT

虽然 C 语言的开发场景貌似看起来很多；但是，使用 C 语言的场景几乎就是：底层/系统开发 + 关键组件/模块的开发 + 贴近硬件的开发，这些开发场景非常关注运行效率，或者响应时间，或者硬件资源。

3.6 不学 C 语言，行吗？ ​

  • C 语言相比于其它的现代化高级编程语言而言，如：Java、Go 等，实在是太老了；如果不打算搞嵌入式开发，即便学了，一时半会也用不上。但是，几乎所有大学的计算机/软件专业都将 C 语言作为必修课，这又是为什么呢？
  • 其实，是因为 C 语言是一门基础语言，很多其它的课程都依赖 C 语言。如果你不了解 C 语言，很多课程你是理解不了的，如下所示：
    • ① 编译原理课程通常是以 C 语言为例进行讲解，因为 C 语言的编译过程相对简单、规范和透明，适合教学。
    • ② 数据结构课程通常也是使用 C 语言进行编程，因为 C 语言比较底层，能够让大家看到数据结构的各种细节。另外，数据结构是一种被频繁调用的组件，必须要追求效率，C 语言再合适不过了。
    • ③ 学习操作系统原理（内存、进程、线程、通信等）也要具备 C 语言基础，否则是学不明白的。
    • ...
  • C 语言是一门面向计算机的语言，它能帮助我们快速了解底层；而其它的高级语言（Python、Java、C# 等）是面向用户的，它能让我们快速上手，搞出点实用的工具来，比如：桌面软件、网站、APP 等。

NOTE

  • ① 借助 C 语言学习原理，相当于修炼内功；使用其它语言开发程序，相当于精通招式。
  • ② 一个既有扎实“内功”又精通“招式”的程序员，无疑能够更好地应对各种编程挑战。
  • 从整体上讲，计算机软件大概可以分为两种：
    • 一种是基础设施，如：操作系统、数据库、浏览器、云计算系统、大数据系统、编译器/编程语言、通信协议、区块链、标准库/运行库、算法实现等。
    • 一种是应用软件，如：桌面软件、APP、网站、小程序等。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 内功不扎实的话，开发一般的应用软件可能没什么问题。但是，如果想要开发高性能的软件，或者开发基础设施，那是绝对是不行的。
  • ② 万丈高楼平地起，勿在浮沙筑高台！！！

3.7 C 语言的版本选择 ​

3.7.1 概述 ​

  • C 语言是在 B 语言的基础上改进而来的，目的是为了更好地开发 Unix 操作系统。到了 1973 年，Unix 的大部分功能都被 C 语言重写，这标志着 C 语言的初步成熟，因为它可以用于大型项目了。
  • 后来，C 语言被多次改进，越来越强大，为了规范 C 语言的特性和功能，人们发布了多个 C 语言标准。

3.7.2 版本 1（K＆R C） ​

  • K&R C 指的是 C 语言的原始版本。1978 年，C 语言的发明者布莱恩·柯林（Brian Kernighan）和丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）合写了一本著名的教材《C 编程语言》（The C programming language）。

NOTE

由于 C 语言还没有成文的语法标准，这本书就成了公认标准，以两位作者的姓氏首字母作为版本简称 “K&R C”。

3.7.3 版本 2（ANSI C，又称 C89 或 C90） ​

  • 到了 80 年代，C 语言越来越流行，广泛被业界使用，从大型主机到小型微机，各个厂商群雄并起，推出了多款 C 语言的编译器。这些编译器根据行业和厂商自己的需求，进行了各种扩展，C 语言进入了春秋战国时代，逐渐演变成一个松散杂乱的大家族。
  • 为统一 C 语言版本，1989 年，美国国家标准协会（ANSI）制定了一套 C 语言标准，并于次年被国际标准化组织（ISO）通过。它被称为 “ANSI C”，也可以按照发布年份，称为 “C89 或 C90”。

NOTE

目前常用的编译器，如：MSVC（Microsoft Visual C++）、GCC、LLVM Clang 等，都能很好地支持 ANSI C 的内容。

3.7.4 版本 3（C99） ​

  • C 语言标准的第一次大型修订，发生在 1999 年，增加了许多语言特性，如：双斜杠（ // ）的注释语法，可变长度数组、灵活的数组成员、复数、内联函数和指定的初始值设定项，这个版本称为 C99，是目前最流行的 C 版本。

NOTE

这个时候的 C 语言编译器基本已经成熟，各个组织对 C99 的支持所表现出来的兴趣不同：

  • 当 GCC 和其它一些商业编译器支持 C99 的大部分特性的时候。
  • 微软和 Borland 却似乎对此不感兴趣，或者说没有足够的资源和动力来改进编译器。

最终导致不同的编译器在部分语法上存在差异。典型的例子就是：ANSI C 规定，只能用常量表示数组的长度，而 C99 取消了这个限制，数组的长度也可以用变量表示（可变长度数组）。对于 C99 的这个新改动，GCC 和 Clang 是支持的，而 MSVC 却不支持。

3.7.5 版本 4（C11） ​

  • 2011 年，标准化组织再一次对 C 语言进行修订，增加了_Generic、static_assert 和原子类型限定符，这个版本称为 C11。

NOTE

  • ① 需要强调的是，修订标准的原因并不是因为原标准不能用，而是需要跟进新的技术。
  • ② 支持此标准的主流 C 语言编译器有 GCC、LLVM Clang、Intel C++ Compile 等。

3.7.6 版本 5（C17） ​

  • C11 标准在 2017 年进行了修补，但发布是在 2018 年。新版本只是解决了 C11 的一些缺陷，没有引入任何新功能，这个版本称为 C17。

3.7.7 版本 6（C23） ​

  • 2023 年发布，计划进一步增强安全性，消除实现定义的行为，引入模块化语言概念等新特性，使 C 语言在安全和可靠性方面有重大提高。

第四章：C 语言的学习技巧 ​

4.1 如何学习 C 语言？ ​

  • 对于大部分的初学者， 学习 C 语言的目的可能是为了成为一名合格的程序员，开发出优秀的软件。但是，在学习了 C 语言的基本语法后，却发现只能在控制台（黑底白字）上玩玩，没有漂亮的用户界面以及人性化的交互。于是，开始学习数据结构、算法、数据库、操作系统，越陷越深，越来越迷茫，不知道学习 C 语言能做什么，认为学习编程很难，开始怀疑自己，直到放弃！！！
  • 其实，C 语言本身就是一门非常简单的语言，提供的实用功能不多，大部分的时候需要借助操作系统、第三方库以及以及一些硬件，如：单片机等，才能发挥它的威力！！！

IMPORTANT

  • ① 学习 C 语言仅仅是让你踏上程序员之路的第一步而已，只学习 C 语言也做不了什么。
  • ② 系统、扎实的学习 C 语言可以让你了解底层硬件、一些简单的数据结构和算法，并培养计算机思维。
  • 前文，我们提过：C 语言是一门通用性的语言，并没有针对某个领域进行优化。并且，在实际项目中，C 语言主要用于比较底层的开发，例如：
    • Windows、Linux、Unix 等操作系统的内核 90% 以上都使用 C 语言开发（Rust 语言有望未来，在操作系统开发中占据一席之地，特别是在对安全性和性能要求极高的领域）。
    • 开发硬件驱动，让硬件和操作系统连接起来，这样用户才能更有效的使用硬件。
    • 单片机和嵌入式属于软硬件的结合，是使用 C 语言最多的地方。
    • 开发系统组件或服务，用于支撑上层应用。
    • 如果对软件某个模块，例如：算法和搜索部分的效率要求较高，也可以使用 C 语言来开发。
    • ……
  • 貌似感觉 C 语言的应用还是很多的啊，那为什么感觉学习 C 语言还是做不了什么？原因除了 C 语言通常都是开发最底层的应用之外，最重要的一点就是生态。

IMPORTANT

现代化的高级编程语言的流行程度，除了和编程语言的设计是否优秀有关，最主要的原因就是生态。

  • ① 很多编程语言都自带标准库（语言本身提供的，开箱即用），如：Java、Go 等。
  • ② 很多编程语言都有自己的包管理器（用于管理第三方库）解决方案，如：Java 中的 Maven、Gradle、Go 中的 go modules ，JavaScript 的 npm 等。

遗憾的是，C 语言的标准库非常简单，只有输入输出、文件操作、日期时间、字符串处理、内存管理，对于网络编程、GUI、数据库、并发等需要大量的第三方库或操作系统的功能来扩展 C 语言的功能（Java 语言、Go 语言等其他的现代化高级编程语言，都是直接将这些常见的开发场景内置到标准库中，开箱即用，极大的降低了软件开发的难度）。C 语言的第三方库也不是很多（和其它现代化高级编程语言相比，C 语言的大多数的第三方库都是底层库，支持应用开发的库寥寥无几，只有一个 GTK 库能够开发出桌面软件，几乎没有网站开发以及 APP 开发相关的库），社区也不是很活跃（和其它现代化高级编程语言相比），更别提缺少自己的包管理器。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 换言之，在实际工作中，C 语言几乎是不用做软件、网站、APP 等这些应用层开发，其它的编程语言能够更好地完成任务，没必要非得使用 C 语言，C 语言基本都是用来做底层开发，也就是看不见摸不着的、在后台默默提供服务的那些项目，而这样的项目对初学者来说基本没有实用价值，初学者也不知道它们该怎么使用。

  • ② 初学者想要的 C 语言没有，C 语言能做的初学者用不到，就是这种矛盾，导致初学者非常迷茫。

  • ③ 有人可能会问，C 语言不是还可以用来开发单片机或者嵌入式吗？是的没错，但是这个方向是软硬件结合的，不是在我们的电脑上进行开发，而是在特殊的板子上进行开发，并且还需要学习数字电路、模拟电路、8051/ARM、RTOS、嵌入式 Linux 等方面的知识，只学 C 语言也没有用武之地。

  • ④ 如果你觉得学了 C 语言没用，那么恭喜你，你是对的，应用层的开发一般真的用不上它。

  • ⑤ 但是，没用也要学，学习 C 语言并不一定是要应用它，C 语言可以夯实你的编程基础，尤其是数据结构、算法、内存、线程、进程、通信、操作系统、编译原理等底层的计算机知识，没有 C 语言基础是学不好的。

  • ⑥ 这些底层知识并不一定能够直接应用在实际开发中，但是它们会让你有底气，会让你透彻地理解编程概念，会让你站的“低”看得远，会让你避免很多低级错误，会让你心中有“架构师”的思维。

IMPORTANT

不过，现在 C 语言社区也开始诞生了一些包管理器，如：Conan 和 vcpkg ；也有自己的项目构建工具，如：cmake 、xmake 等。

NOTE

JavaScript 的作者 Brendan Eich（布兰登·艾奇） 曾经这么说：“与其说我爱 JavaScript，不如说我恨它。它是 C 语言和 Self 语言一夜情的产物（致敬 C 语言）。十八世纪英国文学家约翰逊博士说得好："它的优秀之处并非原创，它的原创之处并不优秀。"”

4.2 项目构建工具和包管理器 ​

4.2.1 概述 ​

  • 项目构建工具和包管理器在软件开发中扮演着不同的角色，它们虽然有时会有重叠的功能，但主要关注的点是不同的。

4.2.2 项目构建工具 ​

  • 项目构建工具是用于自动化编译、测试、打包、部署等一系列任务的软件工具。它们帮助开发者简化和管理整个软件开发生命周期中的各个步骤，尤其是在构建过程中的复杂性管理上。
  • 其功能有：
    • 编译代码：自动编译源代码（如 ：.java、.c 等）为可执行文件或中间文件（如：.class 文件）。
    • 运行测试：集成单元测试、集成测试，自动运行测试用例并生成报告。
    • 打包：将编译后的代码、依赖库、资源文件等打包成可分发的格式（如：JAR、WAR、可执行文件等）。
    • 依赖管理：自动下载、更新和管理项目所需的第三方库（这部分功能有时与包管理器重叠）。
    • 部署：将打包后的应用程序自动部署到测试环境、生产环境等。
    • 任务自动化：除了基本的构建流程外，还可以自动化执行一些常见任务，如：代码检查、文档生成等。
  • 常用的项目构建工具：
    • Maven（Java）：一个流行的构建工具和依赖管理工具，广泛用于 Java 项目。
    • Gradle（Java、Kotlin、Groovy）：一个灵活的构建工具，支持声明式的构建脚本和多种语言。
    • Make（C/C++）：一个经典的构建工具，使用 Makefile 来定义构建规则和依赖关系。
    • CMake（C/C++）：一个跨平台的构建系统，帮助生成标准的构建文件，如：Makefile 或 Visual Studio 项目文件。
    • ……

4.2.3 包管理器 ​

  • 包管理器是用于自动化安装、更新、配置和管理软件包及其依赖关系的工具。它主要关注于获取和管理项目所需的第三方库或工具包，并确保它们正确地集成到项目中。
  • 其功能有：
    • 依赖管理：根据项目配置文件（如：package.json、requirements.txt）自动下载和安装项目所需的依赖包。
    • 版本控制：管理包的版本，允许开发者指定某个特定版本或版本范围，确保项目中的库版本一致性。
    • 包的发布和共享：开发者可以通过包管理器发布自己的库，并且共享给社区或组织内部的其他项目使用。
    • 环境隔离：有些包管理器提供虚拟环境功能，可以将不同项目的依赖隔离开，避免版本冲突。
    • 更新和卸载：包管理器可以自动更新依赖包到最新的兼容版本或卸载不再需要的包。
  • 常见的包管理器：
    • npm（Node.js）：用于管理 JavaScript 和 Node.js 项目的包和模块。
    • pip（Python）：用于安装和管理 Python 的软件包。
    • Cargo（Rust）：Rust 编程语言的包管理器和构建工具。
    • Yarn（JavaScript）：是 npm 的替代品，提供更快和更可靠的包管理体验。
    • Homebrew（macOS）：用于 macOS 系统下的命令行工具和库的管理。
    • ……

4.2.3 注意事项 ​

  • 对于 Java 项目中的 Maven 或 Gradle 而言，其不仅是项目构建工具也是包管理工具。

NOTE

  • ① Gradle 也支持原生项目的开发，如：C 和 C++ 。
  • ② 不过，目前而言，业界开发 C/C++ 项目时，使用最多的项目构建工具和包管理器是 Cmake 和 Conan 。

4.3 C 语言为什么没有应用层开发的库？ ​

  • C 语言是一门“古老”的语言了，它只支持面向过程编程，不支持面向对象编程和泛型编程，在中大型的应用层项目开发中，C 语言已经显得捉襟见肘了，C++、Java、Python、C#、JavaScript 等其他编程语言能够更好地胜任，为 C 语言开发应用层的库简直是费力不讨好，所以几乎没人这么做。
  • GTK 算是一个应用层的库，它使用 C 语言开发，但是为了适应市场，GTK 也提供了其它编程语言的接口，如：C++、Python 等。
  • 先不用管面向过程、面向对象、泛型这些晦涩的编程概念；简单地理解就是，C 语言支持的特性少，用起来费劲，开发效率低，而 C++、Java、Python、C#、JavaScript 等支持的特性多，用起来方便，开发效率高。
  • C 语言的优势是运行效率极高，这正是底层开发所看重的。底层开发有时候就是一个模块，或者是一个服务，规模不算大，但是对效率有严格的要求，此时用 C 语言就非常合适，所以针对底层开发的 C 语言库较多，因为它们有非常大的实用价值。

第五章：附录 ​

5.1 嵌入式领域中的 C 语言 ​

5.1.1 概述 ​

  • C 语言在 C51、STM32 和 ARM 平台上的应用场景非常广泛，涵盖了各种嵌入式系统的开发需求。

5.1.2 C51（8051 系列微控制器） ​

  • 背景：8051 是由 Intel 于 1980 年设计的一种 8 位微控制器架构。它具有指令集简单、结构紧凑的特点，广泛应用于低端嵌入式系统中。
  • 开发工具：C51 是指针对 8051 系列微控制器的 C 语言编译器，如：Keil C51。这种编译器将 C 语言代码编译为适合 8051 架构的汇编代码。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 8051 微控制器上的应用使得开发更加高效和可维护。尽管 8051 的硬件资源有限，但 C 语言仍然能够在不损失性能的前提下提供高级编程的便利。
  • 应用场景：
    • 简单的控制系统：家用电器（微波炉、洗衣机、空调）的控制板等。这些设备通常不需要复杂的运算能力，但要求可靠和稳定的控制。
    • 低功耗传感器接口：C51 微控制器常用于低功耗传感器的数据采集和传输，如：温度、湿度、压力传感器。
    • 工业自动化设备：用于简单的工业自动化控制，如：小型电机驱动、工业传感器数据处理和传输。
    • 电子玩具：许多简单的电子玩具使用 8051 系列微控制器来控制声音、LED 灯光、显示屏等。

NOTE

总结：C51 微控制器适用于资源受限、需要低成本的简单控制系统，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发！！！

5.1.3 STM32（STM32 系列微控制器） ​

  • 背景：STM32 是意法半导体（STMicroelectronics）推出的一系列基于 ARM Cortex-M 内核的 32 位微控制器。它们广泛用于需要高性能和低功耗的嵌入式应用中，如：工业控制、消费电子和物联网设备。
  • 开发工具：开发 STM32 微控制器通常使用 Keil、IAR Embedded Workbench 或 STM32CubeIDE 等开发环境。这些环境中使用的编程语言主要是 C（有时也包括 C++）。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 STM32 上的应用非常广泛，开发者可以利用它直接控制硬件寄存器，同时也能方便地使用 STM32 提供的 HAL（硬件抽象层）库或 LL（低层）库进行开发。C 语言在这个平台上不仅能实现底层控制，还能编写复杂的应用逻辑。
  • 应用场景：
    • 物联网（IoT）设备：STM32 微控制器常用于各种物联网设备，如：智能家居控制系统、环境监测设备、可穿戴设备等。这些设备通常需要低功耗和强大的处理能力，并且需要支持多种通信协议，如：Wi-Fi、Bluetooth、LoRa。
    • 消费电子：智能手表、健身追踪器、电子书阅读器、无人机等，这些设备需要具备实时处理能力、低功耗和良好的外设支持。
    • 医疗设备：STM32 微控制器被广泛应用于便携式医疗设备中，如：血糖监测仪、心率监测器、便携式超声设备等，这些设备需要精确的传感器数据采集和处理。
    • 工业自动化控制：PLC（可编程逻辑控制器）、工业机器人、伺服电机控制等，STM32 能够处理复杂的控制算法和实时任务。
    • 汽车电子：用于汽车中的传感器管理、车载信息娱乐系统、车身控制系统（车窗、电动座椅调节等）。

NOTE

总结：STM32 微控制器在物联网、消费电子、医疗设备和工业控制等领域表现出色，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发，因为 C 语言允许直接进行硬件控制并支持复杂的应用开发。

5.1.3 ARM 架构（特别是 ARM Cortex 系列） ​

  • 背景：ARM 是一种广泛使用的处理器架构，特别是在嵌入式系统中，ARM Cortex 系列处理器（如 Cortex-M、Cortex-R 和 Cortex-A）非常流行。Cortex-M 系列主要用于微控制器，Cortex-R 用于实时系统，Cortex-A 则用于高性能嵌入式系统。
  • 开发工具：针对 ARM 架构的开发，常用工具包括 ARM Keil MDK、IAR、GCC for ARM 和 ARM Development Studio。这些工具均支持使用 C 语言进行开发。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 ARM 架构上的应用广泛。它被用于操作系统内核（如 FreeRTOS、Zephyr）、设备驱动、应用层逻辑等。在 ARM Cortex-M 和 Cortex-R 系列中，C 语言的高效性和低级别硬件访问能力是开发实时、低延迟系统的关键。
  • 应用场景：
    • 高级嵌入式操作系统：ARM Cortex-A 系列处理器广泛用于运行 Linux、Android 等操作系统的嵌入式设备，如：智能手机、平板电脑、智能电视和车载娱乐系统。
    • 实时系统：ARM Cortex-R 系列处理器用于实时系统，如：汽车的 ABS（防抱死制动系统）、ESC（电子稳定控制系统），以及航空电子设备，这些系统要求极低的延迟和高可靠性。
    • 高性能物联网网关：Cortex-A 系列处理器可以用来开发支持多协议、多设备管理的物联网网关，这些网关通常需要强大的计算能力和多线程处理能力。
    • 边缘计算设备：在边缘计算场景中，ARM Cortex-A 处理器用于执行本地数据处理和决策，如：视频分析、图像处理、语音识别等。
    • 智能家居设备：ARM Cortex-M 系列微控制器广泛应用于智能家居产品，如：智能灯泡、智能音箱、家庭安全系统，这些设备需要高效的处理能力和低功耗。
    • 机器人控制系统：ARM Cortex-M 和 Cortex-A 系列处理器用于机器人系统的控制和通信，如：无人机、工业机器人、服务机器人等，处理复杂的运动控制、路径规划和传感器数据融合。

NOTE

总结：ARM Cortex 系列适用于从实时系统到高级嵌入式操作系统的各类应用，支持从低功耗控制到高性能计算的多种需求，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发，因为 C 语言不仅用于控制硬件，还广泛应用于操作系统和应用程序的开发。

5.2 C 和 C++ 的关系 ​

  • 起源和发展：
    • C 语言：C 语言由丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）在 1972 年开发，最初用于开发操作系统，特别是 UNIX。它是一种结构化的编程语言，提供了对硬件的低级访问，且效率高，因此在系统编程中广泛使用。
    • C++ 语言：C++ 由比雅尼·斯特劳斯特鲁普（Bjarne Stroustrup）在 20 世纪 80 年代初开发，作为 C 语言的扩展。它引入了面向对象编程的概念，同时保留了 C 语言的高效性和底层操作能力。C++ 最初被称为 “C with Classes”（带类的 C），后来发展成一种独立的编程语言。
  • 兼容型：
    • 语法兼容：C++ 几乎完全兼容 C 语言的语法，这意味着大多数 C 代码可以在 C++ 编译器下直接编译运行。C++ 可以看作是 C 语言的超集（虽然不完全是 100% 兼容，但差异较少）。
    • 扩展性：C++ 在 C 的基础上增加了许多新特性，如：类和对象、继承、多态、模板和异常处理等。这使得 C++ 不仅适合系统编程，还可以用于开发复杂的应用程序。
  • 编程范式：
    • C 语言：主要是面向过程编程，强调的是函数调用和控制结构。
    • C++ 语言：支持多种编程范式，包括：面向过程、面向对象和泛型编程，使得开发者可以更灵活地选择适合的编程风格。
  • 性能与应用：
    • 性能：由于 C++ 包含了更多的高级特性，它的编译时间和运行时开销可能比 C 稍高。但得益于其优化机制，C++ 仍然可以实现与 C 语言相近的性能。
    • 应用场景：C 语言仍然在嵌入式系统、驱动程序开发和其他对性能要求极高的场合中占据重要地位。而 C++ 则被广泛用于游戏开发、图形处理、大型软件系统等需要复杂结构和抽象的领域。

NOTE

C++ 是 C 语言的继承者和扩展，它保留了 C 语言的优势，并引入了更多现代编程语言的特性，使得它在更广泛的应用领域中得到应用。

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第一章：开发环境的安装和配置（⭐） ​

1.1 什么是编译器？ ​

  • 要开发 C/C++ 程序，需要安装 C/C++ 编译器，目前有两种主流实现，即：
    • GCC（GNU Compiler Collection）：全平台实现，即支持 Windows、MacOS、Linux 等。
    • MSVC（Microsoft Visual C++）：只支持 Windows 系统。
  • GCC 在 Windows 上的版本有很多，如：MinGW-w64、Gygwin、MSYS2。它们之间的区别，如下所示：
特性MinGW-w64CygwinMSYS2
简介Minimalist GNU for WindowsPOSIX 兼容环境和工具集结合了 MinGW 和 Cygwin 的工具集
编译器提供 GCC 编译器提供 POSIX 兼容环境，包含大量工具提供 MinGW-w64 工具链和 Cygwin 环境
生成文件Windows 原生可执行文件POSIX 兼容的可执行文件可以生成 Windows 原生可执行文件或 POSIX 文件
依赖无需额外依赖依赖 Cygwin DLL根据使用工具链决定（MinGW-w64 无依赖，Cygwin 有依赖）
工具和库基本的编译工具丰富的 Unix 工具和库丰富的工具和库，强大的包管理系统
性能性能较好可能较低，因为通过兼容层调用系统取决于使用的工具链（MinGW-w64 性能较好）
复杂度简单易用设置和使用相对复杂较为灵活，复杂度介于 MinGW-w64 和 Cygwin 之间
适用场景开发 Windows 原生应用运行和开发 Unix 程序混合使用 Unix 工具和开发 Windows 原生应用
优点轻量级，直接生成 Windows 应用完整的 POSIX 兼容环境，丰富的工具灵活的环境，强大的包管理系统
缺点工具和库较少生成文件依赖 Cygwin DLL，性能可能较低环境较大，占用更多空间，复杂性比 MinGW-w64 高

NOTE

  • ① MinGW-w64 、Cygwin 以及 MSYS2 任选其一安装即可。
  • ② 目前的 Win10 和 Win11 版本支持 WSL2 （Windows Sub Linux 2 ，即 Windows 的子系统 Linux），可以实现在 Windows 系统上安装一个 Linux ，然后再运行 Linux 中的 GCC 工具链。
  • ③ 本人的操作系统是 Win11 ，安装和配置都将以该系统为基础作为演示，后续不再赘述！！！

1.2 编译器的安装和配置 ​

1.2.2 MinGW-w64 的安装和配置 ​

1.2.2.1 安装 ​

  • 下载到本地：略。

NOTE

下载地址在这里。

  • 解压到指定的目录，即：

NOTE

本人的解压目录是：D:\\develop\\mingw64 。

1.2.2.2 配置 path 环境变量 ​

  • 配置环境变量，以便任意目录都可以执行 gcc 命令，即：

NOTE

因为，本人安装 MinGW-w64 的目录是 D:\\develop\\mingw64，所以本人需要配置的 path 环境变量就是D:\\develop\\mingw64\\bin。

  • 测试是否安装成功：
shell
gcc --version

1.2.3 Cygwin 的安装和配置 ​

1.2.3.1 安装 ​

  • 下载到本地：略。

NOTE

下载地址在这里。

  • 点击安装：

NOTE

默认是最小化安装，没有 GCC，需要选择 gcc-core、gcc-g++、make、gdb、binutils 。

1.2.3.2 配置 path 环境变量 ​

  • 和 1.2.2.2 配置 path 环境变量 步骤相同：略。

1.2.4 MSYS2（推荐） ​

1.2.4.1 安装 ​

  • 下载到本地：略。

NOTE

下载地址在这里。

  • 点击安装：

NOTE

可能很多人，会遇到安装到 50% 就一直卡死在那边，不用慌，关闭它，再次重新安装即可。

  • 出现命令终端：

NOTE

如果没有出现命令终端，也不要慌，去 Win11 操作系统的开始菜单，那边找一下，就能找到。

  • 替换清华镜像源（可选）：
shell
sed -i \\
+import{_ as s,c as a,o as i,a6 as n}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpNYY.js";const 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第一章：开发环境的安装和配置（⭐） ​
1.1 什么是编译器？ ​
  • 要开发 C/C++ 程序，需要安装 C/C++ 编译器，目前有两种主流实现，即： 
    • GCC（GNU Compiler Collection）：全平台实现，即支持 Windows、MacOS、Linux 等。
    • MSVC（Microsoft Visual C++）：只支持 Windows 系统。
  • GCC 在 Windows 上的版本有很多，如：MinGW-w64、Gygwin、MSYS2。它们之间的区别，如下所示：
特性MinGW-w64CygwinMSYS2
简介Minimalist GNU for WindowsPOSIX 兼容环境和工具集结合了 MinGW 和 Cygwin 的工具集
编译器提供 GCC 编译器提供 POSIX 兼容环境，包含大量工具提供 MinGW-w64 工具链和 Cygwin 环境
生成文件Windows 原生可执行文件POSIX 兼容的可执行文件可以生成 Windows 原生可执行文件或 POSIX 文件
依赖无需额外依赖依赖 Cygwin DLL根据使用工具链决定（MinGW-w64 无依赖，Cygwin 有依赖）
工具和库基本的编译工具丰富的 Unix 工具和库丰富的工具和库，强大的包管理系统
性能性能较好可能较低，因为通过兼容层调用系统取决于使用的工具链（MinGW-w64 性能较好）
复杂度简单易用设置和使用相对复杂较为灵活，复杂度介于 MinGW-w64 和 Cygwin 之间
适用场景开发 Windows 原生应用运行和开发 Unix 程序混合使用 Unix 工具和开发 Windows 原生应用
优点轻量级，直接生成 Windows 应用完整的 POSIX 兼容环境，丰富的工具灵活的环境，强大的包管理系统
缺点工具和库较少生成文件依赖 Cygwin DLL，性能可能较低环境较大，占用更多空间，复杂性比 MinGW-w64 高
NOTE
  • ① MinGW-w64 、Cygwin 以及 MSYS2 任选其一安装即可。
  • ② 目前的 Win10 和 Win11 版本支持 WSL2 （Windows Sub Linux 2 ，即 Windows 的子系统 Linux），可以实现在 Windows 系统上安装一个 Linux ，然后再运行 Linux 中的 GCC 工具链。
  • ③ 本人的操作系统是 Win11 ，安装和配置都将以该系统为基础作为演示，后续不再赘述！！！
1.2 编译器的安装和配置 ​
1.2.2 MinGW-w64 的安装和配置 ​
1.2.2.1 安装 ​
  • 下载到本地：略。
NOTE
下载地址在这里。
  • 解压到指定的目录，即：
NOTE
本人的解压目录是：D:\\develop\\mingw64 。
1.2.2.2 配置 path 环境变量 ​
  • 配置环境变量，以便任意目录都可以执行 gcc 命令，即：
NOTE
因为，本人安装 MinGW-w64 的目录是 D:\\develop\\mingw64，所以本人需要配置的 path 环境变量就是D:\\develop\\mingw64\\bin。
  • 测试是否安装成功：
shell
gcc --version
1.2.3 Cygwin 的安装和配置 ​
1.2.3.1 安装 ​
  • 下载到本地：略。
NOTE
下载地址在这里。
  • 点击安装：
NOTE
默认是最小化安装，没有 GCC，需要选择 gcc-core、gcc-g++、make、gdb、binutils 。
1.2.3.2 配置 path 环境变量 ​
  • 和 1.2.2.2 配置 path 环境变量 步骤相同：略。
1.2.4 MSYS2（推荐） ​
1.2.4.1 安装 ​
  • 下载到本地：略。
NOTE
下载地址在这里。
  • 点击安装：
NOTE
可能很多人，会遇到安装到 50% 就一直卡死在那边，不用慌，关闭它，再次重新安装即可。
  • 出现命令终端：
NOTE
如果没有出现命令终端，也不要慌，去 Win11 操作系统的开始菜单，那边找一下，就能找到。
  • 替换清华镜像源（可选）：
shell
sed -i \\
     "s#https\\?://mirror.msys2.org/#https://mirrors.tuna.tsinghua.edu.cn/msys2/#g" \\
-    /etc/pacman.d/mirrorlist*
  • 安装 gcc 等相关开发包：
shell
pacman -Syu --noconfirm # 更新包管理器
shell
pacman -Sy base-devel --noconfirm # 安装开发工具包
shell
pacman -Sy mingw-w64-ucrt-x86_64-toolchain --noconfirm # 安装开发 gcc 相关工具链
NOTE
也许，你会看到其他人的安装命令是 pacman -Sy mingw-w64-x86_64-toolchain --noconfirm，此处解释下两者的区别：
  • ① mingw-w64-x86_64-toolchain 使用更传统的 MSVCRT，适合需要经典 MinGW 环境的项目或依赖较老 C 运行时的应用。
  • ② mingw-w64-ucrt-x86_64-toolchain 使用 Microsoft 的 UCRT，更适合现代 Windows 开发，提供更好的兼容性和性能。
1.2.4.2 配置 path 环境变量 ​
  • 和 1.2.2.2 配置 path 环境变量 步骤相同：略。
NOTE
本人需要配置的 path 环境变量是 C:\\msys64\\ucrt64\\bin 。
1.3 什么是 IDE（集成开发环境）？ ​
  • 在实际开发中，除了编译器是必须安装的工具之外，我们往往还需要很多其他的辅助软件，如下所示：
    • 编辑器：用来编写代码，并且给代码着色，以方便阅读。
    • 代码提示器：输入部分代码，即可提示全部代码，加速代码的编写过程。
    • 调试器：观察程序的每一个运行步骤，发现程序的逻辑错误。
    • 项目管理工具：对程序涉及到的所有资源进行管理，包括：源文件、图片、视频、第三方库等。
    • 漂亮的界面：各种按钮、面板、菜单、窗口等控件整齐排布，操作更方便。
  • 这些工具通常被打包在一起，统一安装和发布，如：Visual Studio、CLion 以及 VS Code ，通常统称为集成开发环境（IDE，Integrated Development Environment）。
NOTE
  • ① IDE（集成开发环境）就是一系列开发工具的组合套装。这就好比台式机，核心部件是主机。主机就相当于 IDE 的代码编辑器和编译器，有了它们，开发者就可以进行基本的编程工作。然而，正如我们在购买台式机时，通常还会附带显示器、键盘、鼠标、U盘、摄像头等外围设备，IDE 也同样提供了一系列额外的工具和插件，比如：调试器、版本控制集成、代码补全、代码重构工具等。这些“外围设备”让开发过程更加高效、直观，并且能够满足更多的开发需求，使得 IDE 成为一个完整的开发环境。
  • ② 严格来讲， VS Code 属于编辑器，而不是 IDE；但是，可以通过安装各种插件，来完成 IDE 的功能；而 Visual Studio 和 CLion 属于 IDE。
  • ③ 在实际开发中，使用 IDE 进行编程并不是一种非常丢人的事情。而使用编辑器，如：记事本、vi/vim 等，进行编程，也并不是一件非常骄傲的事情。可能有些人会在网上发布这样的言论：“学习编程，刚开始需要使用记事本或 vi/vim等简单的编辑器软件，不要使用 IDE ”，目的可能是为了让初学者熟悉编程的基础概念和语法，并避免依赖 IDE 的辅助功能。但是，这种方法或许可以起到锻炼基础技能的功能，但这并不意味着 IDE 就不适合初学者。事实上，许多 IDE 还提供了初学者友好的界面和工具，可以帮助新手更快地入门和理解编程。
1.4 IDE 的安装和配置 ​
1.4.1 CLion ​
1.4.1.1 概述 ​
  • CLion 是一款由 JetBrains 推出的跨平台 C/C++ 集成开发环境（IDE），它具有智能编辑器、CMake 构建支持、调试器、单元测试、代码分析等功能，可以极大提高 C/C++ 开发效率。
NOTE
  • ① 本次，演示的 CLion 的安装版本是 2024.1.4 ，后续版本可能会更新，但是操作几乎不会发生太多变化！！！
  • ② CLion 作为一个 IDE，本身就携带了各个平台（操作系统）的 C 语言编译器，如：Windows 中就是 MinGW；但是，CLion 中自带的 C 语言编译器版本可能并非我们实际开发所想要的，这也是在 Windows 中，为什么推荐使用 MSYS2 的原因所在。
1.4.1.2 安装 ​
  • 鼠标双击，进入安装：
  • 下一步：
  • 下一步：
  • 下一步：
  • 安装：
  • 安装完成：
1.4.1.3 配置 ​
  • 打开 CLion ：
  • 安装中文插件（可选）：
NOTE
对于以中文、韩语和日语为母语的开发者，CLion 在 2024.2 之后的版本就绑定了本地化插件，即不需要再安装本地化插件了。
  • 配置新 UI ：
  • 新 UI 配置自定义字体（可选）：
  • 配置自动保存功能：
  • 配置文件编码 为 UTF-8：
  • 配置控制台编码为 UTF-8：
  • 配置显示方法分隔符功能：
  • 配置编辑器的字体（可选）：
  • 检测 GCC 工具链是否安装成功：
1.4.2 VS Code ​
1.4.2.1 概述 ​
  • Visual Studio Code (VS Code) 是一个免费的开源代码编辑器，适用于 Windows、MacOS 和 Linux 平台。它支持语法高亮、智能代码补全（IntelliSense）、内置调试工具和Git集成。用户可以通过扩展来添加更多功能，如：支持新的编程语言、主题和调试工具。VS Code 还支持在微软 Azure 上进行部署和托管，适用于各种编程语言和框架。
NOTE
  • ① Visual Studio Code 需要安装对应的插件，才能运行 C/C++ 代码。
  • ② Visual Studio Code 除了开源免费的优点之外，还有一个优点就是插件巨多（几乎所有主流的编程语言都提供有对应的插件），这也是很多程序员喜欢使用它的原因。
1.4.2.2 安装 ​
  • 鼠标双击，进入安装：
  • 同意协议：
  • 下一步：
  • 下一步：
  • 下一步：
  • 安装：
  • 安装过程：
  • 安装完成：
1.4.2.3 配置 ​
  • 安装中文插件：
  • 安装 C/C++ 插件：
1.4.3 Microsoft Visual Studio ​
1.4.3.1 概述 ​
  • Visual Studio（简称 VS）是由微软公司发布的集成开发环境。它包括了整个软件生命周期中所需要的大部分工具，如：UML 工具、代码管控工具、项目版本控制 Git 等。
  • Visual Studio 支持 C/C++、C#、F#、VB 等多种程序语言的开发和测试，可以用于生成 Web 应用程序，也可以生成桌面应用程序，功能十分强大，但下载和安装很可能耗时数小时，还可能会塞满磁盘。
  • Visual Studio 有三种版本：社区版（免费，不支持企业使用），专业版（收费）和企业版（收费）。企业版拥有面向架构师的功能、高级调试和测试，这些功能是另外两种版本所没有的。
  • Visual Studio 旨在成为世界上最好的 IDE（集成开发环境），号称“宇宙第一强大 IDE”。
NOTE
本次，演示的 Visual Studio 的安装版本是 Visual Studio 2022 ，后续版本可能会更新，但是操作几乎不会发生太多变化！！！
1.4.3.2 安装 ​
  • 鼠标双击，进入安装：
  • 继续：
  • 等待：
  • 工作负荷（使用 C++ 的桌面开发）：
  • 单个组件：
  • 语言包：
  • 安装位置（修改默认的安装位置）：
  • 如果不是第一次安装，可能会出现共享组件、工具和 SDK不可以修改，即：
  • 此时，就需要打开注册表编辑器，将如下图中的除了第一个选项，全部删除，然后关闭再重新安装，即：
  • 开始安装：
  • 安装中：
  • 安装完成，然后关闭：
1.4.3.3 配置 ​
  • 在开始菜单处，启动 VS ：
  • 登录或跳过该选项（有微软账号就注册，没有就暂时跳过）：
  • 继续：
  • 注册 VS ：
  • 填写注册码：
NOTE
  • ① Pro 版本：TD244-P4NB7-YQ6XK-Y8MMM-YWV2J
  • ② Enterprise 版本：VHF9H-NXBBB-638P6-6JHCY-88JWH
1.5 什么是工程/项目 ？ ​
1.5.1 概述 ​
  • 一个真正的软件往往包含多项功能，每一项功能都需要几十行、几千行甚至几万行的代码，如果我们将这些代码都放到一个源文件中，不但打开的速度极慢，代码的编写和维护也会变得非常困难。
  • 在实际开发中，随着软件规模的增加，代码的复杂性也会显著提升，为了提高代码的易读性、维护性等，程序员会将代码按照功能分别放到不同的源文件中。
NOTE
需要说明的是，一个真正的软件除了源代码之外，往往还会包括图片、视频、音频、库（框架）等其它资源，这些也是一个个的文件。
  • 为了有效的管理这些种类繁杂、数目众多的文件，我们会将这些文件按照功能放到不同的目录中进行统一管理，并且这个目录下只存放与当前程序有关的资源。其实，这就是工程或项目。
NOTE
总结：
  • ① 随着软件规模的增加，代码的复杂性也会显著提升。将代码分割成多个模块或文件并分别管理，可以减少每个文件的复杂度，使代码更易读、易理解、易维护。工程提供了一个结构化的环境，将这些文件组织在一个系统化的目录结构中。
  • ② 除了代码，软件开发还涉及到各种资源的管理，如：图片、音频、视频、配置文件等。工程能够帮助开发者将这些资源合理地分类存放，并与代码一同管理，确保它们在开发、编译和运行时能被正确引用。
  • 许多 IDE 都提供了工程或项目的概念，其目的就是为了帮助开发者合理的管理软件开发中所需要的资源，如：图片、视频、音频、库（框架）等。
1.5.2 工程类型/项目类型 ​
  • 程序或软件是一个非常宽泛的概念，它可以细分为很多种类，如下所示：
    • 控制台程序（Console Application）：控制台程序是一种不具备图形用户界面的程序，它通过文本方式与用户交互，通常运行在命令行窗口（黑底白字的终端），如：Unix/Linux 中的ls命令、Windows 中的cmd.exe等。
    • GUI 程序（Graphical User Interface Program）：GUI 程序是一种具有图形用户界面的程序，通过窗口、按钮、菜单等图形控件与用户交互，如：微信、QQ 等。
    • 静态库和动态库：不单独出现，而是作为其它程序的一个组成部分，普通用户很难接触到它们。 
      • 静态库指的是在编译时包含到程序中的库，程序不依赖外部文件运行，如：在 C/C++ 中，静态库通常以.lib（Windows）或.a（Unix/Linux）为扩展名。
      • 动态库指的是在运行时加载的库，允许多个程序共享，并且程序在运行时依赖这些库，如： 在Windows中，动态库通常以.dll为扩展名；在 Unix/Linux 中，以.so为扩展名。
  • 不同类型的程序（控制台程序、GUI 程序、静态库、动态库等）需要不同的配置和文件结构，因此在 IDE 中创建项目时，选择正确的工程类型非常重要。不同的工程类型决定了 IDE 为我们生成的初始文件、目录结构，以及预设的一些编译和链接参数。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 控制台程序适合初学者，因为它更简单，没有复杂的界面元素，开发时可以专注于逻辑和代码本身。
  • ② 而 GUI 程序则涉及到用户界面设计和事件驱动编程，更适合有一定编程基础的人进行学习和开发。
第二章：C 语言入门（HelloWorld，⭐） ​
2.1 手动版 ​
  • ① 新建一个 HelloWorld.c 的文件：
  • ② 通过记事本等软件打开该文件，输入如下的代码，并保存：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+    /etc/pacman.d/mirrorlist*
  • 安装 gcc 等相关开发包：
shell
pacman -Syu --noconfirm # 更新包管理器
shell
pacman -Sy base-devel --noconfirm # 安装开发工具包
shell
pacman -Sy mingw-w64-ucrt-x86_64-toolchain --noconfirm # 安装开发 gcc 相关工具链
NOTE
也许，你会看到其他人的安装命令是 pacman -Sy mingw-w64-x86_64-toolchain --noconfirm，此处解释下两者的区别：
  • ① mingw-w64-x86_64-toolchain 使用更传统的 MSVCRT，适合需要经典 MinGW 环境的项目或依赖较老 C 运行时的应用。
  • ② mingw-w64-ucrt-x86_64-toolchain 使用 Microsoft 的 UCRT，更适合现代 Windows 开发，提供更好的兼容性和性能。
1.2.4.2 配置 path 环境变量 ​
  • 和 1.2.2.2 配置 path 环境变量 步骤相同：略。
NOTE
本人需要配置的 path 环境变量是 C:\\msys64\\ucrt64\\bin 。
1.3 什么是 IDE（集成开发环境）？ ​
  • 在实际开发中，除了编译器是必须安装的工具之外，我们往往还需要很多其他的辅助软件，如下所示：
    • 编辑器：用来编写代码，并且给代码着色，以方便阅读。
    • 代码提示器：输入部分代码，即可提示全部代码，加速代码的编写过程。
    • 调试器：观察程序的每一个运行步骤，发现程序的逻辑错误。
    • 项目管理工具：对程序涉及到的所有资源进行管理，包括：源文件、图片、视频、第三方库等。
    • 漂亮的界面：各种按钮、面板、菜单、窗口等控件整齐排布，操作更方便。
  • 这些工具通常被打包在一起，统一安装和发布，如：Visual Studio、CLion 以及 VS Code ，通常统称为集成开发环境（IDE，Integrated Development Environment）。
NOTE
  • ① IDE（集成开发环境）就是一系列开发工具的组合套装。这就好比台式机，核心部件是主机。主机就相当于 IDE 的代码编辑器和编译器，有了它们，开发者就可以进行基本的编程工作。然而，正如我们在购买台式机时，通常还会附带显示器、键盘、鼠标、U盘、摄像头等外围设备，IDE 也同样提供了一系列额外的工具和插件，比如：调试器、版本控制集成、代码补全、代码重构工具等。这些“外围设备”让开发过程更加高效、直观，并且能够满足更多的开发需求，使得 IDE 成为一个完整的开发环境。
  • ② 严格来讲， VS Code 属于编辑器，而不是 IDE；但是，可以通过安装各种插件，来完成 IDE 的功能；而 Visual Studio 和 CLion 属于 IDE。
  • ③ 在实际开发中，使用 IDE 进行编程并不是一种非常丢人的事情。而使用编辑器，如：记事本、vi/vim 等，进行编程，也并不是一件非常骄傲的事情。可能有些人会在网上发布这样的言论：“学习编程，刚开始需要使用记事本或 vi/vim等简单的编辑器软件，不要使用 IDE ”，目的可能是为了让初学者熟悉编程的基础概念和语法，并避免依赖 IDE 的辅助功能。但是，这种方法或许可以起到锻炼基础技能的功能，但这并不意味着 IDE 就不适合初学者。事实上，许多 IDE 还提供了初学者友好的界面和工具，可以帮助新手更快地入门和理解编程。
1.4 IDE 的安装和配置 ​
1.4.1 CLion ​
1.4.1.1 概述 ​
  • CLion 是一款由 JetBrains 推出的跨平台 C/C++ 集成开发环境（IDE），它具有智能编辑器、CMake 构建支持、调试器、单元测试、代码分析等功能，可以极大提高 C/C++ 开发效率。
NOTE
  • ① 本次，演示的 CLion 的安装版本是 2024.1.4 ，后续版本可能会更新，但是操作几乎不会发生太多变化！！！
  • ② CLion 作为一个 IDE，本身就携带了各个平台（操作系统）的 C 语言编译器，如：Windows 中就是 MinGW；但是，CLion 中自带的 C 语言编译器版本可能并非我们实际开发所想要的，这也是在 Windows 中，为什么推荐使用 MSYS2 的原因所在。
1.4.1.2 安装 ​
  • 鼠标双击，进入安装：
  • 下一步：
  • 下一步：
  • 下一步：
  • 安装：
  • 安装完成：
1.4.1.3 配置 ​
  • 打开 CLion ：
  • 安装中文插件（可选）：
NOTE
对于以中文、韩语和日语为母语的开发者，CLion 在 2024.2 之后的版本就绑定了本地化插件，即不需要再安装本地化插件了。
  • 配置新 UI ：
  • 新 UI 配置自定义字体（可选）：
  • 配置自动保存功能：
  • 配置文件编码 为 UTF-8：
  • 配置控制台编码为 UTF-8：
  • 配置显示方法分隔符功能：
  • 配置编辑器的字体（可选）：
  • 检测 GCC 工具链是否安装成功：
1.4.2 VS Code ​
1.4.2.1 概述 ​
  • Visual Studio Code (VS Code) 是一个免费的开源代码编辑器，适用于 Windows、MacOS 和 Linux 平台。它支持语法高亮、智能代码补全（IntelliSense）、内置调试工具和Git集成。用户可以通过扩展来添加更多功能，如：支持新的编程语言、主题和调试工具。VS Code 还支持在微软 Azure 上进行部署和托管，适用于各种编程语言和框架。
NOTE
  • ① Visual Studio Code 需要安装对应的插件，才能运行 C/C++ 代码。
  • ② Visual Studio Code 除了开源免费的优点之外，还有一个优点就是插件巨多（几乎所有主流的编程语言都提供有对应的插件），这也是很多程序员喜欢使用它的原因。
1.4.2.2 安装 ​
  • 鼠标双击，进入安装：
  • 同意协议：
  • 下一步：
  • 下一步：
  • 下一步：
  • 安装：
  • 安装过程：
  • 安装完成：
1.4.2.3 配置 ​
  • 安装中文插件：
  • 安装 C/C++ 插件：
1.4.3 Microsoft Visual Studio ​
1.4.3.1 概述 ​
  • Visual Studio（简称 VS）是由微软公司发布的集成开发环境。它包括了整个软件生命周期中所需要的大部分工具，如：UML 工具、代码管控工具、项目版本控制 Git 等。
  • Visual Studio 支持 C/C++、C#、F#、VB 等多种程序语言的开发和测试，可以用于生成 Web 应用程序，也可以生成桌面应用程序，功能十分强大，但下载和安装很可能耗时数小时，还可能会塞满磁盘。
  • Visual Studio 有三种版本：社区版（免费，不支持企业使用），专业版（收费）和企业版（收费）。企业版拥有面向架构师的功能、高级调试和测试，这些功能是另外两种版本所没有的。
  • Visual Studio 旨在成为世界上最好的 IDE（集成开发环境），号称“宇宙第一强大 IDE”。
NOTE
本次，演示的 Visual Studio 的安装版本是 Visual Studio 2022 ，后续版本可能会更新，但是操作几乎不会发生太多变化！！！
1.4.3.2 安装 ​
  • 鼠标双击，进入安装：
  • 继续：
  • 等待：
  • 工作负荷（使用 C++ 的桌面开发）：
  • 单个组件：
  • 语言包：
  • 安装位置（修改默认的安装位置）：
  • 如果不是第一次安装，可能会出现共享组件、工具和 SDK不可以修改，即：
  • 此时，就需要打开注册表编辑器，将如下图中的除了第一个选项，全部删除，然后关闭再重新安装，即：
  • 开始安装：
  • 安装中：
  • 安装完成，然后关闭：
1.4.3.3 配置 ​
  • 在开始菜单处，启动 VS ：
  • 登录或跳过该选项（有微软账号就注册，没有就暂时跳过）：
  • 继续：
  • 注册 VS ：
  • 填写注册码：
NOTE
  • ① Pro 版本：TD244-P4NB7-YQ6XK-Y8MMM-YWV2J
  • ② Enterprise 版本：VHF9H-NXBBB-638P6-6JHCY-88JWH
1.5 什么是工程/项目 ？ ​
1.5.1 概述 ​
  • 一个真正的软件往往包含多项功能，每一项功能都需要几十行、几千行甚至几万行的代码，如果我们将这些代码都放到一个源文件中，不但打开的速度极慢，代码的编写和维护也会变得非常困难。
  • 在实际开发中，随着软件规模的增加，代码的复杂性也会显著提升，为了提高代码的易读性、维护性等，程序员会将代码按照功能分别放到不同的源文件中。
NOTE
需要说明的是，一个真正的软件除了源代码之外，往往还会包括图片、视频、音频、库（框架）等其它资源，这些也是一个个的文件。
  • 为了有效的管理这些种类繁杂、数目众多的文件，我们会将这些文件按照功能放到不同的目录中进行统一管理，并且这个目录下只存放与当前程序有关的资源。其实，这就是工程或项目。
NOTE
总结：
  • ① 随着软件规模的增加，代码的复杂性也会显著提升。将代码分割成多个模块或文件并分别管理，可以减少每个文件的复杂度，使代码更易读、易理解、易维护。工程提供了一个结构化的环境，将这些文件组织在一个系统化的目录结构中。
  • ② 除了代码，软件开发还涉及到各种资源的管理，如：图片、音频、视频、配置文件等。工程能够帮助开发者将这些资源合理地分类存放，并与代码一同管理，确保它们在开发、编译和运行时能被正确引用。
  • 许多 IDE 都提供了工程或项目的概念，其目的就是为了帮助开发者合理的管理软件开发中所需要的资源，如：图片、视频、音频、库（框架）等。
1.5.2 工程类型/项目类型 ​
  • 程序或软件是一个非常宽泛的概念，它可以细分为很多种类，如下所示：
    • 控制台程序（Console Application）：控制台程序是一种不具备图形用户界面的程序，它通过文本方式与用户交互，通常运行在命令行窗口（黑底白字的终端），如：Unix/Linux 中的ls命令、Windows 中的cmd.exe等。
    • GUI 程序（Graphical User Interface Program）：GUI 程序是一种具有图形用户界面的程序，通过窗口、按钮、菜单等图形控件与用户交互，如：微信、QQ 等。
    • 静态库和动态库：不单独出现，而是作为其它程序的一个组成部分，普通用户很难接触到它们。 
      • 静态库指的是在编译时包含到程序中的库，程序不依赖外部文件运行，如：在 C/C++ 中，静态库通常以.lib（Windows）或.a（Unix/Linux）为扩展名。
      • 动态库指的是在运行时加载的库，允许多个程序共享，并且程序在运行时依赖这些库，如： 在Windows中，动态库通常以.dll为扩展名；在 Unix/Linux 中，以.so为扩展名。
  • 不同类型的程序（控制台程序、GUI 程序、静态库、动态库等）需要不同的配置和文件结构，因此在 IDE 中创建项目时，选择正确的工程类型非常重要。不同的工程类型决定了 IDE 为我们生成的初始文件、目录结构，以及预设的一些编译和链接参数。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 控制台程序适合初学者，因为它更简单，没有复杂的界面元素，开发时可以专注于逻辑和代码本身。
  • ② 而 GUI 程序则涉及到用户界面设计和事件驱动编程，更适合有一定编程基础的人进行学习和开发。
第二章：C 语言入门（HelloWorld，⭐） ​
2.1 手动版 ​
  • ① 新建一个 HelloWorld.c 的文件：
  • ② 通过记事本等软件打开该文件，输入如下的代码，并保存：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main(){
     printf("Hello World");
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ import{_ as s,c as a,o as i,a6 as n}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpNYY.js";const l
 // 编译器将在系统的标准头文件目录中查找文件。
 #include <filename>
c
// 用于包含用户自定义的头文件。
 // 编译器首先在当前目录中查找文件，如果未找到，再在标准头文件目录中查找。
-#include "filename"
第六章：CLion 高级配置（⭐） ​
6.1 安装和配置 WSL2 ​
6.1.1 概述 ​
  • WSL2，全称为 Windows Subsystem for Linux 2，是微软提供的一种技术，允许用户在 Windows 操作系统上运行 Linux 内核。WSL2 是 WSL1 的升级版，它引入了一个真正的 Linux 内核来代替 WSL1 中使用的兼容层，从而提供更高的性能和更广泛的系统调用支持。
  • 和传统的虚拟化技术的对比，如下所示：
NOTE
WSL2 的功能，如下所示：
  • ① 真实的 Linux 内核：WSL2 使用了微软开发的轻量级虚拟机，它包含了一个完整的 Linux 内核。这意味着 WSL2 能够运行更多的 Linux 应用程序，并且支持更多的系统调用。
  • ② 文件系统性能提升：WSL2 的文件系统性能比 WSL1 有显著提升。对于 I/O 密集型的操作，如：编译代码或数据库操作，WSL2 能够提供更快的速度。
  • ③ 兼容性增强：由于使用了真实的 Linux 内核，WSL2 对 Linux 应用程序的兼容性大幅提高。许多在 WSL1 上不能运行或需要调整的应用程序，可以在 WSL2 上直接运行。
  • ④ 网络功能改进：WSL2 提供了更好的网络集成，能够更容易地与 Windows 上的其他网络资源进行交互。
  • ⑤ 资源使用优化：WSL2 使用轻量级虚拟机，比传统的虚拟机占用更少的资源，同时提供了类似的隔离和安全性。
NOTE
WSL2 的用途，如下所示：
  • ① 开发环境：WSL2 为开发者提供了一个原生的 Linux 开发环境，而无需离开 Windows 。这对于需要在 Linux 上开发、测试或运行应用程序的开发者非常有帮助。
  • ② 学习和实验：用户可以使用 WSL2 在 Windows 上学习和实验 Linux 命令行工具和应用程序，而无需设置双重引导系统或安装虚拟机。
  • ③ 多平台开发：对于跨平台开发者来说，WSL2 允许他们在一个操作系统上同时进行 Windows 和 Linux 平台的开发和测试，提高工作效率。
  • ④ 运行 Linux 工具和应用程序：WSL2 支持在 Windows 上直接运行各种 Linux 工具和应用程序，如：Docker、数据库、编程语言环境等。
6.1.2 WSL2 的安装 ​
  • ① BIOS 或 UEFI 中，开启虚拟化：步骤略。
  • ② 查看是否开启了虚拟化：
  • ③ 启用适用于 Linux 的 Windows 子系统：
powershell
dism.exe /online /enable-feature /featurename:Microsoft-Windows-Subsystem-Linux /all /norestart
IMPORTANT
以管理员身份打开 PowerShell 并运行，执行完上述命令之后，如果提示需要重启计算机，那就重启计算机。
  • ④ 启用虚拟机功能：
powershell
dism.exe /online /enable-feature /featurename:VirtualMachinePlatform /all /norestart
IMPORTANT
以管理员身份打开 PowerShell 并运行，执行完上述命令之后，如果提示需要重启计算机，那就重启计算机。
  • ⑤ 更新 Linux 内核包：
powershell
wsl --update
NOTE
wsl2 的最新 Linux 内核包托管在 GitHub 上，某些国家可能会污染 Github 相关的域名，那么就需要手动下载，然后安装即可，下载地址在这里。
  • ⑥ 将 wsl2 设置为默认版本：
powershell
wsl --set-default-version 2
  • ⑦ 查看官方在线支持的 Linux 版本：
powershell
wsl --list --online
  • ⑧ 安装指定版本的 Linux ：
powershell
wsl --install Ubuntu-24.04
NOTE
官方支持的 Linux 版本，托管在 Github 上，某些国家可能会污染 Github 的域名；此时，要么走科学上网，要么在 Microsoft Store 中搜索并安装。
  • ⑨ 在 Microsoft Store 中搜索并安装（可选）：
  • ⑩ 查询本地安装的 Linux 版本：
powershell
wsl --list
6.1.3 配置 WSL2 ​
  • 本人的安装的是 AlmaLinux9 ，所以需要执行如下命令，以便安装 cmake 相关工具链：
shell
sudo dnf update -y # 更新包管理器 
+#include "filename"
第六章：CLion 高级配置（⭐） ​
6.1 安装和配置 WSL2 ​
6.1.1 概述 ​
  • WSL2，全称为 Windows Subsystem for Linux 2，是微软提供的一种技术，允许用户在 Windows 操作系统上运行 Linux 内核。WSL2 是 WSL1 的升级版，它引入了一个真正的 Linux 内核来代替 WSL1 中使用的兼容层，从而提供更高的性能和更广泛的系统调用支持。
  • 和传统的虚拟化技术的对比，如下所示：
NOTE
WSL2 的功能，如下所示：
  • ① 真实的 Linux 内核：WSL2 使用了微软开发的轻量级虚拟机，它包含了一个完整的 Linux 内核。这意味着 WSL2 能够运行更多的 Linux 应用程序，并且支持更多的系统调用。
  • ② 文件系统性能提升：WSL2 的文件系统性能比 WSL1 有显著提升。对于 I/O 密集型的操作，如：编译代码或数据库操作，WSL2 能够提供更快的速度。
  • ③ 兼容性增强：由于使用了真实的 Linux 内核，WSL2 对 Linux 应用程序的兼容性大幅提高。许多在 WSL1 上不能运行或需要调整的应用程序，可以在 WSL2 上直接运行。
  • ④ 网络功能改进：WSL2 提供了更好的网络集成，能够更容易地与 Windows 上的其他网络资源进行交互。
  • ⑤ 资源使用优化：WSL2 使用轻量级虚拟机，比传统的虚拟机占用更少的资源，同时提供了类似的隔离和安全性。
NOTE
WSL2 的用途，如下所示：
  • ① 开发环境：WSL2 为开发者提供了一个原生的 Linux 开发环境，而无需离开 Windows 。这对于需要在 Linux 上开发、测试或运行应用程序的开发者非常有帮助。
  • ② 学习和实验：用户可以使用 WSL2 在 Windows 上学习和实验 Linux 命令行工具和应用程序，而无需设置双重引导系统或安装虚拟机。
  • ③ 多平台开发：对于跨平台开发者来说，WSL2 允许他们在一个操作系统上同时进行 Windows 和 Linux 平台的开发和测试，提高工作效率。
  • ④ 运行 Linux 工具和应用程序：WSL2 支持在 Windows 上直接运行各种 Linux 工具和应用程序，如：Docker、数据库、编程语言环境等。
6.1.2 WSL2 的安装 ​
  • ① BIOS 或 UEFI 中，开启虚拟化：步骤略。
  • ② 查看是否开启了虚拟化：
  • ③ 启用适用于 Linux 的 Windows 子系统：
powershell
dism.exe /online /enable-feature /featurename:Microsoft-Windows-Subsystem-Linux /all /norestart
IMPORTANT
以管理员身份打开 PowerShell 并运行，执行完上述命令之后，如果提示需要重启计算机，那就重启计算机。
  • ④ 启用虚拟机功能：
powershell
dism.exe /online /enable-feature /featurename:VirtualMachinePlatform /all /norestart
IMPORTANT
以管理员身份打开 PowerShell 并运行，执行完上述命令之后，如果提示需要重启计算机，那就重启计算机。
  • ⑤ 更新 Linux 内核包：
powershell
wsl --update
NOTE
wsl2 的最新 Linux 内核包托管在 GitHub 上，某些国家可能会污染 Github 相关的域名，那么就需要手动下载，然后安装即可，下载地址在这里。
  • ⑥ 将 wsl2 设置为默认版本：
powershell
wsl --set-default-version 2
  • ⑦ 查看官方在线支持的 Linux 版本：
powershell
wsl --list --online
  • ⑧ 安装指定版本的 Linux ：
powershell
wsl --install Ubuntu-24.04
NOTE
官方支持的 Linux 版本，托管在 Github 上，某些国家可能会污染 Github 的域名；此时，要么走科学上网，要么在 Microsoft Store 中搜索并安装。
  • ⑨ 在 Microsoft Store 中搜索并安装（可选）：
  • ⑩ 查询本地安装的 Linux 版本：
powershell
wsl --list
6.1.3 配置 WSL2 ​
  • 本人的安装的是 AlmaLinux9 ，所以需要执行如下命令，以便安装 cmake 相关工具链：
shell
sudo dnf update -y # 更新包管理器 
 sudo dnf groupinstall "Development Tools" -y # 安装开发工具包
 sudo dnf install gcc gcc-c++ -y # 安装GCC相关工具链
 sudo dnf install cmake -y # 安装 cmake
@@ -185,7 +185,11 @@ import{_ as s,c as a,o as i,a6 as n}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpNYY.js";const l
 SpacesInCStyleCastParentheses: false
  • CLion 中配置保存的时候自动格式化，即：
6.5 配置 .gitignore 文件 ​
  • 需要在项目中，配置 .gitignore 文件，以便在提交代码到 Git 仓库的时候，忽略某些文件或目录，如下所示：
  • .gitignore 文件的内容，如下所示：
txt
.vscode
 .idea
 cmake-build-*
-build
6.6 演示 ​
  • 我们可以在项目中，临时创建或复制一个文件，看上述配置是否生效，即：
NOTE
如果是复制并粘贴一个文件到项目中，请点击重新加载 CMake 项目！！！
第七章：C 语言的编译过程（⭐） ​
7.1 概述 ​
  • C 程序的编译过程，如下所示：
  • 过程 ① ：编写（编辑）源代码，即：编写 C 语言源程序代码，并以文件的形式存储在磁盘中。
IMPORTANT
源程序需要以 .c 作为扩展名。
  • 过程 ② ：编译，即：将 C 语言源程序转换为目标程序（或目标文件）。如果程序没有错误，没有任何提示，就会生成一个扩展名为 .obj或 .o 的二进制文件。C 语言中的每条可执行语句经过编译之后，最终都会转换为二进制的机器指令。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 其实，编译阶段包含了预处理、编译和汇编。
  • ② 预处理是编译过程的第一个阶段。在这个阶段，预处理器处理源代码中的指令（例如：#include、#define等），主要任务包括：
    • 头文件包含：将头文件的内容插入到源文件中。例如：#include <stdio.h>会被替换为stdio.h文件的内容。
    • 宏展开：替换宏定义。例如：#define PI 3.14会将代码中的PI替换为3.14。
    • 条件编译：根据条件指令（如：#ifdef、#ifndef）有选择地编译代码。
    • 删除代码中的注释，但是不会进行语法检查。
    • 预处理完成后，生成一个扩展名为.i的中间文件。
  • ③ 编译是将预处理后的源代码转换为汇编代码的过程。在这个阶段，编译器会检查代码的语法和语义，将其转换为目标机器的汇编语言，生成一个扩展名为.s的汇编文件。
  • ④ 汇编是将汇编代码转换为机器代码（也称为目标代码或目标文件）的过程。在这个阶段，汇编器将汇编指令转换为二进制机器指令，生成一个扩展名为.o或 .obj的目标文件。
  • 过程 ③ ：链接（连接），即：将编译形成的目标文件 *.obj 或 *.o和库函数以及其他目录文件链接，形成一个统一的二进制文件 *.exe。
IMPORTANT
  • 为什么需要链接库文件？
  • 因为我们的 C 程序会使用 C 程序库中的内容，如：<stdio.h> 中的 printf() 函数，这些函数不是程序员自己写的，而是 C 程序库中提供的，因此需要链接。其实，在链接过程中，还会加入启动代码，这个启动代码（和系统相关，Linux 下主要有 crt0.c、crti.c 等，它们设置堆栈后，再调用 main() 函数）负责初始化程序运行时的环境。
  • 过程 ④ ：执行，即：有了可执行的 *.exe文件，我们就可以在控制台上执行运行此 *.exe 文件。
IMPORTANT
如果修改了源代码，还需要重新编译、链接，并生成新的 *.exe文件，再执行，方能生效。
7.2 GCC 编译器的介绍 ​
  • 编辑器，如：vim 、vscode 等，是指我们用它来编写源程序的（编辑代码），而我们写的代码语句，电脑是不懂的，我们需要把它转成电脑能懂的语句，编译器就是这样的转化工具。换言之，我们用编辑器编写程序，由编译器编译后才可以运行！
  • 编译器是将易于编写、阅读和维护的高级计算机语言翻译为计算机能解读、运行的低级机器语言的程序。
  • gcc（GNU Compiler Collection，GNU 编译器套件），是由 GNU 开发的编程语言编译器。gcc 原本作为 GNU 操作系统的官方编译器，现已被大多数类 Unix 操作系统（如：Linux、BSD、Mac OS X 等）采纳为标准的编译器，gcc 同样适用于微软的 Windows 。
  • gcc 最初用于编译 C 语言，随着项目的发展， gcc 已经成为了能够编译 C、C++、Java、Ada、fortran、Object C、Object C++、Go 语言的编译器大家族。
7.3 通过 gcc 直接生成可执行文件 ​
  • 示例：进行预处理、编译、汇编和链接
shell
gcc HelloWorld.c -o HelloWorld.exe
7.4 通过 gcc 分步编译 ​
7.3.1 概述 ​
  • 预处理命令：
shell
gcc -E 源文件.c -o 源文件.i # 通常以 .i 结尾表示这个文件是一个中间状态
  • 编译（预处理和编译）命令：
shell
gcc -S 源文件.i -o 源文件.s # 在 Linux 中，通常以 .s 结尾；在 Windows 中，通常以 .asm 结尾
  • 汇编（预处理、编译和汇编）命令：
shell
gcc -c 源文件.s -o 源文件.o # 在 Linux 中，通常以 .o 结尾；在 Windows 中，通常以 .obj 结尾
  • 链接（预处理、编译、汇编和链接）命令：
shell
gcc 源文件.o -o 源文件.exe # 在 Linux 中，通常以 .out 结尾；在 Windows 中，通常以 .exe 结尾
7.4.2 应用示例 ​
  • 示例：只进行预处理
shell
gcc -E HelloWorld.c -o HelloWorld.i
  • 示例：只进行预处理和编译
shell
gcc -S HelloWorld.i -o HelloWorld.s
  • 示例：只进行预处理、编译和汇编
shell
gcc -c HelloWorld.s -o HelloWorld.o
  • 示例：进行预处理、编译、汇编和链接
shell
gcc HelloWorld.o -o HelloWorld.exe
第八章：附录 ​
8.1 WSL2 代理问题 ​
  • 在安装和配置 WSL2 之后，可能会出现如下的提示，即：
  • 那么，只需要修改 %USERPROFILE%\\.wslconfig文件，内容如下：
txt
[wsl2]
+build
6.6 演示 ​
  • 我们可以在项目中，临时创建或复制一个文件，看上述配置是否生效，即：
NOTE
如果是复制并粘贴一个文件到项目中，请点击重新加载 CMake 项目！！！
第七章：C 语言的编译过程（⭐） ​
7.1 概述 ​
  • C 程序的编译过程，如下所示：
  • 过程 ① ：编写（编辑）源代码，即：编写 C 语言源程序代码，并以文件的形式存储在磁盘中。
IMPORTANT
源程序需要以 .c 作为扩展名。
  • 过程 ② ：编译，即：将 C 语言源程序转换为目标程序（或目标文件）。如果程序没有错误，没有任何提示，就会生成一个扩展名为 .obj或 .o 的二进制文件。C 语言中的每条可执行语句经过编译之后，最终都会转换为二进制的机器指令。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 其实，编译阶段包含了预处理、编译和汇编。
  • ② 预处理是编译过程的第一个阶段。在这个阶段，预处理器处理源代码中的指令（例如：#include、#define等），主要任务包括：
    • 头文件包含：将头文件的内容插入到源文件中。例如：#include <stdio.h>会被替换为stdio.h文件的内容。
    • 宏展开：替换宏定义。例如：#define PI 3.14会将代码中的PI替换为3.14。
    • 条件编译：根据条件指令（如：#ifdef、#ifndef）有选择地编译代码。
    • 删除代码中的注释，但是不会进行语法检查。
    • 预处理完成后，生成一个扩展名为.i的中间文件。
  • ③ 编译是将预处理后的源代码转换为汇编代码的过程。在这个阶段，编译器会检查代码的语法和语义，将其转换为目标机器的汇编语言，生成一个扩展名为.s的汇编文件。
  • ④ 汇编是将汇编代码转换为机器代码（也称为目标代码或目标文件）的过程。在这个阶段，汇编器将汇编指令转换为二进制机器指令，生成一个扩展名为.o或 .obj的目标文件。
  • 过程 ③ ：链接（连接），即：将编译形成的目标文件 *.obj 或 *.o和库函数以及其他目录文件链接，形成一个统一的二进制文件 *.exe。
IMPORTANT
  • 为什么需要链接库文件？
  • 因为我们的 C 程序会使用 C 程序库中的内容，如：<stdio.h> 中的 printf() 函数，这些函数不是程序员自己写的，而是 C 程序库中提供的，因此需要链接。其实，在链接过程中，还会加入启动代码，这个启动代码（和系统相关，Linux 下主要有 crt0.c、crti.c 等，它们设置堆栈后，再调用 main() 函数）负责初始化程序运行时的环境。
  • 过程 ④ ：执行，即：有了可执行的 *.exe文件，我们就可以在控制台上执行运行此 *.exe 文件。
IMPORTANT
如果修改了源代码，还需要重新编译、链接，并生成新的 *.exe文件，再执行，方能生效。
7.2 GCC 编译器的介绍 ​
  • 编辑器，如：vim 、vscode 等，是指我们用它来编写源程序的（编辑代码），而我们写的代码语句，电脑是不懂的，我们需要把它转成电脑能懂的语句，编译器就是这样的转化工具。换言之，我们用编辑器编写程序，由编译器编译后才可以运行！
  • 编译器是将易于编写、阅读和维护的高级计算机语言翻译为计算机能解读、运行的低级机器语言的程序。
  • gcc（GNU Compiler Collection，GNU 编译器套件），是由 GNU 开发的编程语言编译器。gcc 原本作为 GNU 操作系统的官方编译器，现已被大多数类 Unix 操作系统（如：Linux、BSD、Mac OS X 等）采纳为标准的编译器，gcc 同样适用于微软的 Windows 。
  • gcc 最初用于编译 C 语言，随着项目的发展， gcc 已经成为了能够编译 C、C++、Java、Ada、fortran、Object C、Object C++、Go 语言的编译器大家族。
7.3 通过 gcc 直接生成可执行文件 ​
  • 示例：进行预处理、编译、汇编和链接
shell
gcc HelloWorld.c -o HelloWorld.exe
7.4 通过 gcc 分步编译 ​
7.3.1 概述 ​
  • 预处理命令：
shell
# 通常以 .i 结尾表示这个文件是一个中间状态
+gcc -E 源文件.c -o 源文件.i
  • 编译（预处理和编译）命令：
shell
# 在 Linux 中，通常以 .s 结尾；在 Windows 中，通常以 .asm 结尾
+gcc -S 源文件.i -o 源文件.s
  • 汇编（预处理、编译和汇编）命令：
shell
# 在 Linux 中，通常以 .o 结尾；在 Windows 中，通常以 .obj 结尾
+gcc -c 源文件.s -o 源文件.o
  • 链接（预处理、编译、汇编和链接）命令：
shell
# 在 Linux 中，通常以 .out 结尾；在 Windows 中，通常以 .exe 结尾
+gcc 源文件.o -o 源文件.exe
7.4.2 应用示例 ​
  • 示例：只进行预处理
shell
gcc -E HelloWorld.c -o HelloWorld.i
  • 示例：只进行预处理和编译
shell
gcc -S HelloWorld.i -o HelloWorld.s
  • 示例：只进行预处理、编译和汇编
shell
gcc -c HelloWorld.s -o HelloWorld.o
  • 示例：进行预处理、编译、汇编和链接
shell
gcc HelloWorld.o -o HelloWorld.exe
第八章：附录 ​
8.1 WSL2 代理问题 ​
  • 在安装和配置 WSL2 之后，可能会出现如下的提示，即：
  • 那么，只需要修改 %USERPROFILE%\\.wslconfig文件，内容如下：
txt
[wsl2]
 networkingMode=mirrored
 dnsTunneling=true
 firewall=true
@@ -273,13 +277,17 @@ import{_ as s,c as a,o as i,a6 as n}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpNYY.js";const l
         endif ()
     endif ()
 endforeach ()
  • 在 CLion 中正常运行代码：
  • 在 CLion 中通过 valgrind 运行代码：
8.4 性能分析 ​
8.4.1 概述 ​
  • perf 是一个 Linux 下的性能分析工具，主要用于监控和分析系统性能。它可以帮助开发者和系统管理员了解系统中哪些部分在消耗资源、识别性能瓶颈以及分析程序的运行效率。
8.4.2 安装 ​
8.4.2.1 AlmaLinux9 ​
  • 在 WSL2 中的 AlmaLinux 安装 perf ：
shell
dnf -y install perf
8.4.2.2 Ubuntu 22.04 ​
  • 在 WSL2 中的 Ubuntu 安装 perf ：
shell
apt -y update \\
-	&& apt -y install linux-tools-common linux-tools-generic linux-tools-$(uname -r)
NOTE
之所以报错的原因，在于 WSL2 中的 Ubuntu 的内核是定制化的，并非 Ubuntu 的母公司 Canonical 发布的标准内核，所以需要我们手动编译安装。
  • 查看内核版本：
shell
uname -sr
  • 设置环境变量，方便后续引用：
shell
export KERNEL_VERSION=$(uname -r | cut -d'-' -f1)
  • 安装依赖库：
shell
apt -y update && \\
-	apt -y install binutils-dev debuginfod default-jdk default-jre libaio-dev \\
-    libbabeltrace-dev libcap-dev libdw-dev libdwarf-dev libelf-dev libiberty-dev \\
-    liblzma-dev libnuma-dev libperl-dev libpfm4-dev libslang2-dev libssl-dev \\
-    libtraceevent-dev libunwind-dev libzstd-dev libzstd1 python3-setuptools python3 \\
-    python3-dev systemtap-sdt-dev zlib1g-dev bc dwarves bison flex libnewt-dev libdwarf++0 \\
-    libelf++0 libbfb0-dev python-dev-is-python3
  • 下载源码：
shell
git clone \\
+	&& apt -y install linux-tools-common \\
+	linux-tools-generic linux-tools-$(uname -r)
NOTE
之所以报错的原因，在于 WSL2 中的 Ubuntu 的内核是定制化的（微软自己维护的），并非 Ubuntu 的母公司 Canonical 发布的标准内核，所以需要我们手动编译安装。
  • 查看内核版本：
shell
uname -sr
  • 设置环境变量，方便后续引用：
shell
export KERNEL_VERSION=$(uname -r | cut -d'-' -f1)
  • 安装依赖库：
shell
apt -y update && \\
+	apt -y install binutils-dev debuginfod default-jdk \\
+	default-jre libaio-dev libbabeltrace-dev libcap-dev \\
+	libdw-dev libdwarf-dev libelf-dev libiberty-dev \\
+    liblzma-dev libnuma-dev libperl-dev libpfm4-dev \\
+    libslang2-dev libssl-dev libtraceevent-dev libunwind-dev \\
+    libzstd-dev libzstd1 python3-setuptools python3 \\
+    python3-dev systemtap-sdt-dev zlib1g-dev bc dwarves \\
+    bison flex libnewt-dev libdwarf++0 \\
+    libelf++0 libbfb0-dev python-dev-is-python3
  • 下载源码：
shell
git clone \\
     --depth 1 \\
     --single-branch --branch=linux-msft-wsl-\${KERNEL_VERSION} \\
-    https://github.com/microsoft/WSL2-Linux-Kernel.git
  • 编译内核代码：
shell
cd WSL2-Linux-Kernel
shell
make -j $(nproc) KCONFIG_CONFIG=Microsoft/config-wsl
  • 编译 perf 工具：
shell
cd tools/perf
shell
make clean && make
  • 复制到 PATH 变量所指向的路径中：
shell
cp perf /usr/bin/
8.4.3 整合 ​
  • CLion 中配置 perf 的路径：
  • 在 CLion 中通过 perf 运行代码：
8.5 Win 中文乱码问题 ​
  • 前文，我们提及到，在 Win 中，如果出现中文乱码问题，就需要去语言和区别设置系统区域的编码为 UTF-8 ；但是，这样可能会造成其它的软件出现中文乱码问题，如：Xshell 等。
NOTE
  • ① 之所以，修改系统的编码为 UTF-8 会出现问题，是因为早期的 Win 系统的中文默认编码是 GBK（目前也是，Win 并没有强制第三方软件使用 UTF-8 编码） ，而 Xshell 等也使用的这些编码，一旦我们修改为 UTF-8 之后，可能会造成这些第三方软件出现中文乱码问题（第三方软件适配问题，相信将来应该都会切换为 UTF-8 编码），体验较差！！！
  • ② 在 Linux 或 MacOS 之所以不会出现中文乱码的问题，是因为这些系统默认的编码就是 UTF-8 。
  • 其实，还有一种解决方案，如下所示：
  • 测试一下，是否配置成功：
8.6 CLion 中自动导入头文件 ​
  • 在 CLion 中，最为强大的功能就是直接输入函数，然后让 IDE 帮我们自动导入头文件，包括自定义的头文件，相当实用。
NOTE
  • ① CLion 中的自动导入头文件的快捷键是 Alt + Enter 。
  • ② CLion 中的自动提取变量的类型的快捷键是 Ctrl + Alt + V 。
  • 开启自动导入头文件的步骤，如下所示：
',572),Ei=[mi];function Ci(yi,Fi,_i,vi,Bi,fi){return i(),a("div",null,Ei)}const xi=s(bi,[["render",Ci]]);export{Di as __pageData,xi as default};
+    https://github.com/microsoft/WSL2-Linux-Kernel.git

  • 编译内核代码：
shell
cd WSL2-Linux-Kernel
shell
make -j $(nproc) KCONFIG_CONFIG=Microsoft/config-wsl

  • 编译 perf 工具：
shell
cd tools/perf
shell
make clean && make

  • 复制到 PATH 变量所指向的路径中：
shell
cp perf /usr/bin/

8.4.3 整合 ​

  • CLion 中配置 perf 的路径：

  • 在 CLion 中通过 perf 运行代码：

8.5 Win 中文乱码问题 ​

  • 前文，我们提及到，在 Win 中，如果出现中文乱码问题，就需要去语言和区别设置系统区域的编码为 UTF-8 ；但是，这样可能会造成其它的软件出现中文乱码问题，如：Xshell 等。

NOTE

  • ① 之所以，修改系统的编码为 UTF-8 会出现问题，是因为早期的 Win 系统的中文默认编码是 GBK（目前也是，Win 并没有强制第三方软件使用 UTF-8 编码） ，而 Xshell 等也使用的这些编码，一旦我们修改为 UTF-8 之后，可能会造成这些第三方软件出现中文乱码问题（第三方软件适配问题，相信将来应该都会切换为 UTF-8 编码），体验较差！！！
  • ② 在 Linux 或 MacOS 之所以不会出现中文乱码的问题，是因为这些系统默认的编码就是 UTF-8 。
  • 其实，还有一种解决方案，如下所示：

  • 测试一下，是否配置成功：

8.6 CLion 中自动导入头文件 ​

  • 在 CLion 中，最为强大的功能就是直接输入函数，然后让 IDE 帮我们自动导入头文件，包括自定义的头文件，相当实用。

NOTE

  • ① CLion 中的自动导入头文件的快捷键是 Alt + Enter 。
  • ② CLion 中的自动提取变量的类型的快捷键是 Ctrl + Alt + V 。

  • 开启自动导入头文件的步骤，如下所示：

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第一章：变量（⭐） ​

1.1 程序中变化的数据 ​

  • 在生活中，我们使用最多的不是固定的数据，而是会变化的数据：
    • ① 购物车商品的数量、价格等。
    • ② 一首歌播放的时间、进度条、歌词的展示等。
    • ③ 微信聊天中消息条数、时间、语音的长度、头像、名称等。
    • ④ 游戏中技能的冷却时间、血量、蓝量、buff 时间、金币的数量等。
    • ……
  • 下图是一个购物车中变化的数据，即：

  • 那么，在实际开发中，我们就会使用变量来保存和操作这些变化的数据。

1.2 变量 ​

  • 变量的定义：变量是程序中不可或缺的组成单位，最基本的存储单元。其实，变量就是一个存储数据的临时空间，可以向其中存储不同类型的数据，如：整数、小数、字符、字符串等，并且变量中的数据在程序运行的时候可以动态改变。

NOTE

  • 变量：用来存储数据的容器。
  • 数据：可以是一个用来计算的数字，如：上文购物车中的价格等；也可以是一句话中的关键词或其它任意格式的数据。
  • 变量的特别之处就在于它存放的数据是可以改变的。
  • 我们可以将变量想象为一个容器，盒子中装的就是我们想要的数据，并且我们需要给盒子取一个特别的名称；通过这个特别的名称，我们可以给盒子添加数据或移除数据，这个特别的名称就是变量名。

NOTE

  • ① 变量是内存中的一个存储区域，该区域的数据可以在同一类型范围内不断变化。
  • ② 通过变量名，可以操作这块内存区域，向其中存储数据或获取数据以及移除数据。
  • ③ 变量的构成包含三个要素：数据类型、变量名、需要存储的数据。
  • ④ 在生活中，我们会经常说：这件衣服的价格是 100（整型） 元，这双鞋子的价格是 250.5（小数，浮点类型） 元，今天天气真好（字符串类型）之类的话；在计算机科学中，这些都是数据，并且它们是有类型，即：数据类型。（数据类型用于定义变量所能存储的数据的种类以及可以对这些数据进行的操作的一种分类，每种数据类型都有特定的属性和用途，它们决定了变量在内存中如何表示和存储，以及变量可以执行哪些操作）

1.3 变量的声明和使用 ​

  • ① 变量必须先声明，后使用。
  • ② 可以先声明变量再赋值，也可以在声明变量的同时进行赋值。
  • ③ 变量的值可以在同一类型范围内不断变化。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 在实际开发中，我们通常都会在声明变量的同时，给其赋值，这被称为初始化。
  • ② 如果不在声明变量的同时，进行初始化，默认情况下，系统会赋予的随机值，我们也称为垃圾值。
  • 示例：先声明，再使用
c
#include <stdio.h>
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第一章：变量（⭐） ​
1.1 程序中变化的数据 ​
  • 在生活中，我们使用最多的不是固定的数据，而是会变化的数据： 
    • ① 购物车商品的数量、价格等。
    • ② 一首歌播放的时间、进度条、歌词的展示等。
    • ③ 微信聊天中消息条数、时间、语音的长度、头像、名称等。
    • ④ 游戏中技能的冷却时间、血量、蓝量、buff 时间、金币的数量等。
    • ……
  • 下图是一个购物车中变化的数据，即：
  • 那么，在实际开发中，我们就会使用变量来保存和操作这些变化的数据。
1.2 变量 ​
  • 变量的定义：变量是程序中不可或缺的组成单位，最基本的存储单元。其实，变量就是一个存储数据的临时空间，可以向其中存储不同类型的数据，如：整数、小数、字符、字符串等，并且变量中的数据在程序运行的时候可以动态改变。
NOTE
  • 变量：用来存储数据的容器。
  • 数据：可以是一个用来计算的数字，如：上文购物车中的价格等；也可以是一句话中的关键词或其它任意格式的数据。
  • 变量的特别之处就在于它存放的数据是可以改变的。
  • 我们可以将变量想象为一个容器，盒子中装的就是我们想要的数据，并且我们需要给盒子取一个特别的名称；通过这个特别的名称，我们可以给盒子添加数据或移除数据，这个特别的名称就是变量名。
NOTE
  • ① 变量是内存中的一个存储区域，该区域的数据可以在同一类型范围内不断变化。
  • ② 通过变量名，可以操作这块内存区域，向其中存储数据或获取数据以及移除数据。
  • ③ 变量的构成包含三个要素：数据类型、变量名、需要存储的数据。
  • ④ 在生活中，我们会经常说：这件衣服的价格是 100（整型） 元，这双鞋子的价格是 250.5（小数，浮点类型） 元，今天天气真好（字符串类型）之类的话；在计算机科学中，这些都是数据，并且它们是有类型，即：数据类型。（数据类型用于定义变量所能存储的数据的种类以及可以对这些数据进行的操作的一种分类，每种数据类型都有特定的属性和用途，它们决定了变量在内存中如何表示和存储，以及变量可以执行哪些操作）
1.3 变量的声明和使用 ​
  • ① 变量必须先声明，后使用。
  • ② 可以先声明变量再赋值，也可以在声明变量的同时进行赋值。
  • ③ 变量的值可以在同一类型范围内不断变化。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 在实际开发中，我们通常都会在声明变量的同时，给其赋值，这被称为初始化。
  • ② 如果不在声明变量的同时，进行初始化，默认情况下，系统会赋予的随机值，我们也称为垃圾值。
  • 示例：先声明，再使用
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -39,12 +39,12 @@ import{_ as s,c as i,o as a,a6 as n}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpNYY.js";const l
 0000,0001,000000000001 代表 LOAD B, 1
 0001,0001,000000010000 代表 STORE B, 16
  • 这样，直接使用内存地址来编写代码（机器语言）实现是太难阅读、修改和维护了；于是，我们就使用了汇编语言来编写代码，并通过编译器来将汇编语言翻译为机器语言，即：
txt
LOAD A, 16   -- 编译 -->   0000,0000,000000010000
 LOAD B, 1    -- 编译 -->   0000,0001,000000000001
-STORE B, 16  -- 编译 -->   0001,0001,000000010000
  • 但是，这样的汇编语言还是面向机器的，编程时仍然需要记住和管理大量内存地址，不具备程序的移植性；于是，我们就是使用了高级语言来编写代码，并引入了变量的概念，即：
c
int num = 10;
  • 我们使用变量名来关联内存地址，这样我们在编写代码的时候，就可以不用直接操作内存地址，极大地提高了代码的可读性和开发效率。并且，当程序运行完毕之后，程序所占用的内存还会交还给操作系统，以便其它程序使用。
  • 综上所述，高级语言编译器的作用就是：
    • ① 编写源代码时使用变量名。
    • ② 程序在经过编译器的编译之后，所有变量名被替换为具体地址。
    • ③ ……
  • 此时，我们就可以知道，变量就是内存中用于存储数据的临时空间，并且变量中的值是可以变化的。
  • 内存中空间的最小单位是字节（Bytes），即 8 个 0 或 1 ，如下所示：
txt
00011001 00100110 00100110 00100110 00100110 ...
NOTE
计算机中存储单位的换算，如下所示：
  • 1 B = 8 bit。
  • 1 KB = 1024 B。
  • 1 MB = 1024 KB。
  • 1 GB = 1024 MB。
  • 1 TB = 1024 GB 。
  • ……
  • 在内存中，每一个字节都有一个编号，这个编号我们称之为地址。一个变量至少占用 1 个字节（1 个或多个字节），我们将变量的第一个字节所占用的地址（变量的首地址），就称之为该变量的地址。CPU 就可以通过变量地址找到某个变量的值，然后拿到具体的数据进行计算了。
NOTE
变量就是保存程序运行过程中临时产生的值。
  • 其实，到这里还是有疑惑的？我们说过，一个变量至少会占用 1 个字节，如果一个变量占用了 4 个字节，而 CPU 只会通过变量的地址（首地址）获取数据，那么 CPU 是如何获取完整的数据的？答案就是通过数据类型，数据类型除了限制数据的种类，还限制了数据在内存中所占空间的大小，如上图所示：
    • ① 假设变量 a 的首地址是 01 ，变量的数据类型是 4 个字节。
    • ② 那么，CPU 就会依次，从 01 ~ 04 中获取数据。
  • 再次，剖析下变量的语法格式：
txt
数据类型 变量名 = 值;
  • 变量名的作用，如下所示： 
    • ① 当我们编写代码的时候，使用变量名来关联某块内存的地址。
    • ② 当 CPU 执行的时候，会将变量名替换为具体的地址，再进行具体的操作。
CAUTION
变量名（标识符）需要符合命名规则和命名规范！！！
  • 数据类型的作用，如下所示：
    • ① 变量的数据类型决定了变量所占空间的大小。当我们在声明变量的时候写了数据数据类型，CPU 就知道从变量的首地址位置开始取多少字节。
    • ② 变量的数据类型决定了两个变量是否能够运行，以及能够做何种运算。例如：JavaScript 就没有 char 类型的变量，都是 string 类型，可以和任意数据类型的数据拼接，并转换为 string 类型；Java 中有 char 类型的变量，底层都会转换 unicode 编码，然后再计算。
  • 值的作用，如下所示：
    • ① 值就是内存中实际存储的数据。
    • ② = 是赋值操作符，就是将等号右侧的数据存储到等号左侧的变量名所代表的内存空间。
  • 那么，如下代码的含义就是：
c
// int 数据类型，4 个字节
+STORE B, 16  -- 编译 -->   0001,0001,000000010000
  • 但是，这样的汇编语言还是面向机器的，编程时仍然需要记住和管理大量内存地址，不具备程序的移植性；于是，我们就是使用了高级语言来编写代码，并引入了变量的概念，即：
c
int num = 10;
  • 我们使用变量名来关联内存地址，这样我们在编写代码的时候，就可以不用直接操作内存地址，极大地提高了代码的可读性和开发效率。并且，当程序运行完毕之后，程序所占用的内存还会交还给操作系统，以便其它程序使用。
  • 综上所述，高级语言编译器的作用就是：
    • ① 编写源代码时使用变量名。
    • ② 程序在经过编译器的编译之后，所有变量名被替换为具体地址。
    • ③ ……
  • 此时，我们就可以知道，变量就是内存中用于存储数据的临时空间，并且变量中的值是可以变化的。
  • 内存中空间的最小单位是字节（Bytes），即 8 个 0 或 1 ，如下所示：
txt
00011001 00100110 00100110 00100110 00100110 ...
NOTE
计算机中存储单位的换算，如下所示：
  • 1 B = 8 bit。
  • 1 KB = 1024 B。
  • 1 MB = 1024 KB。
  • 1 GB = 1024 MB。
  • 1 TB = 1024 GB 。
  • ……
  • 在内存中，每一个字节都有一个编号，这个编号我们称之为地址。一个变量至少占用 1 个字节（1 个或多个字节），我们将变量的第一个字节所占用的地址（变量的首地址），就称之为该变量的地址。CPU 就可以通过变量地址找到某个变量的值，然后拿到具体的数据进行计算了。
NOTE
变量就是保存程序运行过程中临时产生的值。
  • 其实，到这里还是有疑惑的？我们说过，一个变量至少会占用 1 个字节，如果一个变量占用了 4 个字节，而 CPU 只会通过变量的地址（首地址）获取数据，那么 CPU 是如何获取完整的数据的？答案就是通过数据类型，数据类型除了限制数据的种类，还限制了数据在内存中所占空间的大小，如上图所示：
    • ① 假设变量 a 的首地址是 01 ，变量的数据类型是 4 个字节。
    • ② 那么，CPU 就会依次，从 01 ~ 04 中获取数据。
  • 再次，剖析下变量的语法格式：
txt
数据类型 变量名 = 值;
  • 变量名的作用，如下所示： 
    • ① 当我们编写代码的时候，使用变量名来关联某块内存的地址。
    • ② 当 CPU 执行的时候，会将变量名替换为具体的地址，再进行具体的操作。
IMPORTANT
变量名（标识符）需要符合命名规则和命名规范！！！
  • 数据类型的作用，如下所示：
    • ① 变量的数据类型决定了变量所占空间的大小。当我们在声明变量的时候写了数据数据类型，CPU 就知道从变量的首地址位置开始取多少字节。
    • ② 变量的数据类型决定了两个变量是否能够运行，以及能够做何种运算。例如：JavaScript 就没有 char 类型的变量，都是 string 类型，可以和任意数据类型的数据拼接，并转换为 string 类型；Java 中有 char 类型的变量，底层都会转换 unicode 编码，然后再计算。
  • 值的作用，如下所示：
    • ① 值就是内存中实际存储的数据。
    • ② = 是赋值操作符，就是将等号右侧的数据存储到等号左侧的变量名所代表的内存空间。
  • 那么，如下代码的含义就是：
c
// int 数据类型，4 个字节
 // num 变量名 -- 关联内存中的一块存储空间
 // = 10 将 10 存储到 num 所代表的 4 个字节的存储空间中
-int num = 10;
1.7 变量的重要操作 ​
1.7.1 变量的输出 ​
  • 在计算机中，所谓的输入和输出都是以计算机（CPU 和内存）为主体而言的，即：
NOTE
输入：从输入设备(键盘、鼠标、扫描仪)向计算机输入数据。
输出：从计算机向外部输出设备(显示器、打印机)输出数据。
  • 在 C 语言中，提供了 printf() 函数用于输出信息，其函数声明是：
c
int printf (const char *__format, ...) {
+int num = 10;
1.7 变量的重要操作 ​
1.7.1 变量的输出 ​
  • 在计算机中，所谓的输入和输出都是以计算机（CPU 和内存）为主体而言的，即：
NOTE
  • ① 输入：从输入设备(键盘、鼠标、扫描仪)向计算机输入数据。
  • ② 输出：从计算机向外部输出设备(显示器、打印机)输出数据。
  • 在 C 语言中，提供了 printf() 函数用于输出信息，其函数声明是：
c
int printf (const char *__format, ...) {
     ...
-}
  • printf 的标准含义是格式化输出文本，来源于 print formatted（格式化打印）的缩写，其语法规则，如下所示：
NOTE
  • 格式化字符串：是使用双引号括起来的字符串，里面包含了普通的字符串和格式占位符。
  • 格式占位符（格式声明符）：由 % 和格式字符组成，作用是将输出的数据转换为指定的格式后输出，这里的 %d 表示整数。
  • 输出列表：是程序要输出的一些数据，可以是常量、变量或表达式，需要和格式占位符一一对应。
  • 在计算机中，二进制、八进制、十进制以及十六进制的英文名称和缩写，如下所示：
    • 二进制（binary），缩写是 bin。
    • 八进制（octal），缩写是 oct。
    • 十进制（decimal），缩写是 dec。
    • 十六进制（Hexadecimal），缩写是 hex。
  • 其实，我们也可以在 Windows 系统中的计算器中来看到，即：
IMPORTANT
在生活中的 decimal 是小数的意思；但是，在计算机中，decimal 的完整含义是 decimal integer ，即十进制整数。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+}
  • printf 的标准含义是格式化输出文本，来源于 print formatted（格式化打印）的缩写，其语法规则，如下所示：
NOTE
  • ① 格式化字符串：是使用双引号括起来的字符串，里面包含了普通的字符串和格式占位符。
  • ② 格式占位符（格式声明符）：由 % 和格式字符组成，作用是将输出的数据转换为指定的格式后输出，这里的 %d 表示整数。
  • ③ 输出列表：是程序要输出的一些数据，可以是常量、变量或表达式，需要和格式占位符一一对应。
  • 在计算机中，二进制、八进制、十进制以及十六进制的英文名称和缩写，如下所示：
    • 二进制（binary），缩写是 bin。
    • 八进制（octal），缩写是 oct。
    • 十进制（decimal），缩写是 dec。
    • 十六进制（Hexadecimal），缩写是 hex。
  • 其实，我们也可以在 Windows 系统中的计算器中来看到，即：
IMPORTANT
  • ① 在生活中的 decimal 是小数的意思。
  • ② 但是，在计算机中，decimal 的完整含义是 decimal integer ，即十进制整数。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -130,7 +130,9 @@ import{_ as s,c as i,o as a,a6 as n}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpNYY.js";const l
     printf("%d × %d × %d = %d", a, b, c, result);
 
     return 0;
-}
1.8 标识符 ​
1.8.1 概述 ​
  • 在 C 语言中，变量、函数、数组名、结构体等要素命名的时候使用的字符序列，称为标识符。
NOTE
在上世纪 60 - 70 年代的时候，因为国家贫穷，人民生活不富裕等原因，家长虽然会给孩子取名为：张建国、李华强等；但是，也会取小名为二狗子、狗剩等，目的是希望孩子能健康成长（养活），像 张建国、李华强、二狗子、狗剩都是名字（标识符），伴随人的一生。
1.8.2 标识符的命名规范 ​
  • 强制规范：
    • ① 只能由小写或大写英文字母，0-9 或 _ 组成。
    • ② 不能以数字开头。
    • ③ 不可以是关键字。
    • ④ 标识符具有长度限制，不同编译器和平台会有所不同，一般限制在 63 个字符内。
    • ⑤ 严格区分大小写字母，如：Hello、hello 是不同的标识符。
  • 建议规范：
    • ① 为了提高阅读性，使用有意义的单词，见名知意，如：sum，name，max，year 等。
    • ② 使用下划线连接多个单词组成的标识符，如：max_classes_per_student 等。
    • ③ 多个单词组成的标识符，除了使用下划线连接，也可以使用小驼峰命名法，除第一个单词外，后续单词的首字母大写，如： studentId、student_name 等。
    • ④ 不要出现仅靠大小写区分不同的标识符，如：name、Name 容易混淆。
    • ⑤ 系统内部使用了一些下划线开头的标识符，如：C99 标准添加的类型 _Bool，为防止冲突，建议开发者尽量避免使用下划线开头的标识符。
  • 示例：合法（不一定建议）的标识符
txt
a、BOOK_sun、MAX_SIZE、Mouse、student23、Football、FOOTBALL、max、_add、num_1、sum_of_numbers
  • 示例：非法的标识符
txt
$zj、3sum、ab#cd、23student、Foot-baii、s.com、b＆c、j**p、book-1、tax rate、don't
1.8.3 关键字 ​
  • C 语言中的关键字是编译器预定义的保留字，它们有特定的含义和用途，用于控制程序的结构和执行。
  • C80 和 C90 （ANSI C）定义的关键字，如下所示：
类型（功能）具体关键字
数据类型关键字char、double、float、int、long、short、signed、unsigned、void
存储类说明符关键字auto、extern、register、static、typedef、volatile、const
控制语句关键字break、case、continue、default、do、else、for、goto、if、return、switch、while
结构体、联合体和枚举关键字enum、struct、union
其他关键字sizeof
  • C99 新增的关键字，如下所示：
类型（功能）具体关键字
数据类型关键字_Bool、_Complex、_Imaginary
存储类说明符关键字inline、restrict
其他关键字_Complex、 _Imaginary
  • C11 新增的关键字，如下所示：
类型（功能）具体关键字
存储类说明符关键字_Atomic
其他关键字_Alignas、 _Alignof、 _Generic、 _Noreturn、 _Static_assert、 _Thread_local
IMPORTANT
  • ① 关键字不能用作标识符（如：变量名、函数名等）。
  • ② 不要死记硬背这些关键字，在实际开发中，并不一定全部使用到；而且，在学到后面的时候，会自动记住这些关键字以及对应的含义。
第二章：常量（⭐） ​
2.1 概述 ​
  • 在程序运行过程中，不能改变的量就是常量。
NOTE
  • ① 在数学中的 π，就是一个常量，其值为 3.1415926 。
  • ② 在生活中，人类的性别只有男和女；其中，男和女也是常量。
  • ③ ...
2.2 常量的分类 ​
  • 在 C 语言中的变量的分类，如下所示： 
    • ① 字面量常量。
    • ② 标识符常量： 
      • #define 宏定义的标识符常量。
      • const 关键字修饰的标识符常量。
      • 枚举常量。
NOTE
  • 所谓的字面量常量，就是可以直接使用的常量，不需要声明或定义，包括：整数常量、浮点数常量以及字符常量。
  • 所谓的标识符常量，就是使用标识符来作为常量名，包括： #define 宏定义的标识符常量、const 关键字修饰的标识符常量、枚举常量。
  • 示例：字面量常量
c
#include <stdio.h>
+}
1.8 标识符 ​
1.8.1 概述 ​
  • 在 C 语言中，变量、函数、数组名、结构体等要素命名的时候使用的字符序列，称为标识符。
NOTE
  • ① 在上世纪 60 - 70 年代的时候，因为国家贫穷，人民生活不富裕等原因，家长虽然会给孩子取名为：张建国、李华强等。
  • ② 但是，也会给孩子取小名，如：二狗子、狗剩等，目的是希望孩子能健康成长（养活），像 张建国、李华强、二狗子、狗剩都是名字（标识符），伴随人的一生。
1.8.2 标识符的命名规范 ​
  • 强制规范：
    • ① 只能由小写或大写英文字母，0-9 或 _ 组成。
    • ② 不能以数字开头。
    • ③ 不可以是关键字。
    • ④ 标识符具有长度限制，不同编译器和平台会有所不同，一般限制在 63 个字符内。
    • ⑤ 严格区分大小写字母，如：Hello、hello 是不同的标识符。
  • 建议规范：
    • ① 为了提高阅读性，使用有意义的单词，见名知意，如：sum，name，max，year 等。
    • ② 使用下划线连接多个单词组成的标识符，如：max_classes_per_student 等。
    • ③ 多个单词组成的标识符，除了使用下划线连接，也可以使用小驼峰命名法，除第一个单词外，后续单词的首字母大写，如： studentId、student_name 等。
    • ④ 不要出现仅靠大小写区分不同的标识符，如：name、Name 容易混淆。
    • ⑤ 系统内部使用了一些下划线开头的标识符，如：C99 标准添加的类型 _Bool，为防止冲突，建议开发者尽量避免使用下划线开头的标识符。
  • 示例：合法（不一定建议）的标识符
txt
a、BOOK_sun、MAX_SIZE、Mouse、student23、
+Football、FOOTBALL、max、_add、num_1、sum_of_numbers
  • 示例：非法的标识符
txt
$zj、3sum、ab#cd、23student、Foot-baii、
+s.com、b＆c、j**p、book-1、tax rate、don't
1.8.3 关键字 ​
  • C 语言中的关键字是编译器预定义的保留字，它们有特定的含义和用途，用于控制程序的结构和执行。
  • C80 和 C90 （ANSI C）定义的关键字，如下所示：
类型（功能）具体关键字
数据类型关键字char、double、float、int、long、short、signed、unsigned、void
存储类说明符关键字auto、extern、register、static、typedef、volatile、const
控制语句关键字break、case、continue、default、do、else、for、goto、if、return、switch、while
结构体、联合体和枚举关键字enum、struct、union
其他关键字sizeof
  • C99 新增的关键字，如下所示：
类型（功能）具体关键字
数据类型关键字_Bool、_Complex、_Imaginary
存储类说明符关键字inline、restrict
其他关键字_Complex、 _Imaginary
  • C11 新增的关键字，如下所示：
类型（功能）具体关键字
存储类说明符关键字_Atomic
其他关键字_Alignas、 _Alignof、 _Generic、 _Noreturn、 _Static_assert、 _Thread_local
IMPORTANT
  • ① 关键字不能用作标识符（如：变量名、函数名等）。
  • ② 不要死记硬背这些关键字，在实际开发中，并不一定全部使用到；而且，在学到后面的时候，会自动记住这些关键字以及对应的含义。
第二章：常量（⭐） ​
2.1 概述 ​
  • 在程序运行过程中，不能改变的量就是常量。
NOTE
  • ① 在数学中的 π，就是一个常量，其值为 3.1415926 。
  • ② 在生活中，人类的性别只有男和女；其中，男和女也是常量。
  • ③ ...
2.2 常量的分类 ​
  • 在 C 语言中的变量的分类，如下所示： 
    • ① 字面量常量。
    • ② 标识符常量： 
      • #define 宏定义的标识符常量。
      • const 关键字修饰的标识符常量。
      • 枚举常量。
NOTE
  • ① 所谓的字面量常量，就是可以直接使用的常量，不需要声明或定义，包括：整数常量、浮点数常量以及字符常量。
  • ② 所谓的标识符常量，就是使用标识符来作为常量名，包括： #define 宏定义的标识符常量、const 关键字修饰的标识符常量、枚举常量。
  • 示例：字面量常量
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -150,7 +152,7 @@ import{_ as s,c as i,o as a,a6 as n}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpNYY.js";const l
     printf("字符串常量 =》%s\\n", "你好");
 
     return 0;
-}
2.3 使用 #define 定义常量 ​
  • #define 来定义常量，也叫作宏定义，就是用一个标识符来表示一个常量值，如果在后面的代码中出现了该标识符，那么编译时就全部替换成指定的常量值，即用宏体替换所有宏名，简称宏替换。
  • 格式是：
c
#define 常量名 常量值
CAUTION
  • ① 其实宏定义的常量的执行时机是在预处理阶段，将所有宏常量替换完毕，才会继续编译代码。
  • ② 不要以 ; 结尾，如果有 ; ，分号也会成为常量值的一部分。
  • ③ # define 必须写在 main 函数的外面！！！
  • ④ 常量名习惯用大写字母表示，如果多个单词，使用 _ 来分隔，以便和变量区分。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+}
2.3 使用 #define 定义常量 ​
  • #define 来定义常量，也叫作宏定义，就是用一个标识符来表示一个常量值，如果在后面的代码中出现了该标识符，那么编译时就全部替换成指定的常量值，即用宏体替换所有宏名，简称宏替换。
  • 格式是：
c
#define 常量名 常量值
IMPORTANT
  • ① 其实宏定义的常量的执行时机是在预处理阶段，将所有宏常量替换完毕，才会继续编译代码。
  • ② 不要以 ; 结尾，如果有 ; ，分号也会成为常量值的一部分。
  • ③ # define 必须写在 main 函数的外面！！！
  • ④ 常量名习惯用大写字母表示，如果多个单词，使用 _ 来分隔，以便和变量区分。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 #define PI 3.1415926
 
@@ -237,7 +239,7 @@ import{_ as s,c as i,o as a,a6 as n}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpNYY.js";const l
     printf("%d 的十六进制（前缀）整数： %#X\\n", num, num); // 100 的十六进制（前缀）整数： 0X64
 
     return 0;
-}
3.3 进制的运算规则 ​
3.3.1 概述 ​
  • 十进制的运算规则，如下所示： 
    • 逢十进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当十（针对减法而言）。
  • 二进制的运算规则，如下所示： 
    • 逢二进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当二（针对减法而言）。
  • 八进制的运算规则，如下所示： 
    • 逢八进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当八（针对减法而言）。
  • 十六进制的运算规则，如下所示： 
    • 逢十六进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当十六（针对减法而言）。
3.3.2 二进制的运算 ​
  • 二进制的加法：1 + 0 = 1 、1 + 1 = 10、11 + 10 = 101、111 + 111 = 1110。
  • 二进制的减法：1 - 0 = 1 、10 - 1 = 1、101 - 11 = 10、1100 - 111 = 101 。
3.3.3 八进制的运算 ​
  • 八进制的加法：3 + 4 = 7 、5 + 6 = 13、75 + 42 = 137、2427 + 567 = 3216。
  • 八进制的减法：6 - 4 = 2 、52 - 27 = 33、307 - 141 = 146、7430 - 1451 = 5757 。
3.3.4 十六进制的运算 ​
  • 十六进制的加法：6 + 7 = D 、18 + BA = D2、595 + 792 = D27、2F87 + F8A = 3F11。
  • 十六进制的减法：D - 3 = A 、52 - 2F = 23、E07 - 141 = CC6、7CA0 - 1CB1 = 5FEF 。
3.4 进制的转换 ​
3.4.1 概述 ​
  • 不同进制的转换，如下所示：
  • 在计算机中，数据是从右往左的方式排列的；其中，最右边的是低位，最左边的是高位，即：
3.4.2 二进制和十进制的转换 ​
3.4.2.1 二进制转换为十进制 ​
  • 规则：从最低位开始，将每个位上的数提取出来，乘以 2 的 （位数 - 1 ）次方，然后求和。
NOTE
  • ① 在学术界，将这种计算规则，称为位权相加法。
  • ② 八进制转换为十进制、十六进制转换为十进制和二进制转换为十进制的算法相同！！！
  • 示例：十进制转十进制
  • 示例：二进制转十进制
3.4.2.2 十进制转换二进制 ​
  • 规则：将该数不断除以 2 ，直到商为 0 为止，然后将每步得到的余数倒过来，就是对应的二进制。
NOTE
  • ① 在学术界，将这种计算规则，称为短除法或连续除2取余法。
  • ② 很好理解，只有不断地除以 2 ，就能保证最大的数字不超过 2 ，这不就是二进制（只能有 0 或 1）吗？
  • ③ 八进制转换为二进制、十六进制转换为二进制和十进制转换为二进制的算法相同！！！
  • 示例：十进制转十进制
  • 示例：十进制转二进制
3.4.3 二进制转八进制 ​
  • 规则：从右向左，每 3 位二进制就是一个八进制，不足补 0（分组转换法）。
  • 示例：011 101 001 -> 351
3.4.4 二进制转十六进制 ​
  • 规则：从右向左，每 4 位二进制就是一个十六进制，不足补 0（分组转换法）。
  • 示例：1110 1001 -> 0xE9
3.5 原码、反码和补码 ​
3.5.1 概述 ​
  • 机器数：一个数在计算机的存储形式是二进制，我们称这些二进制数为机器数。机器数可以是有符号的，用机器数的最高位来存放符号位，0 表示正数，1 表示负数。
IMPORTANT
这里讨论的适用于有符号位的整数，如：int 等；而不适用于无符号位的整数，即：unsinged int 等。
  • 真值（数据位）：因为机器数带有符号位，所以机器数的形式值不等于其真实表示的值（真值），以机器数 1000 0001 为例，其真正表示的值（首位是符号位）为 -1，而形式值却是 129 ，因此将带有符号位的机器数的真正表示的值称为机器数的真值。
IMPORTANT
这里讨论的适用于有符号位的整数，如：int 等；而不适用于无符号位的整数，即：unsinged int 等。
3.5.2 原码 ​
  • 原码的表示与机器数真值表示的一样，即用第一位表示符号，其余位表示数值。
  • 规则： 
    • 正数的原码是它本身对应的二进制数，符号位是 0 。
    • 负数的原码是它本身绝对值对应的二进制数，但是符号位是 1 。
  • +1 的原码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）
+10000 0000 0000 0001
  • -1 的原码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）
-11000 0000 0000 0001
IMPORTANT
总结：
  • ① 按照原码的规则，会出现 +0 和 -0 的情况，即：0000 0000 0000 0001（+0）、1000 0000 0000 0001（-0），显然不符合实际情况。
  • ② 所以，计算机底层虽然存储和计算的都是二进数，但显然不是原码。
3.5.3 反码 ​
  • 规则：
    • 正数的反码和它的原码相同。
    • 负数的反码是在其原码的基础上，符号位不变，其余各位取反。
  • +1 的反码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）反码（16位二进制数）
+10000 0000 0000 00010000 0000 0000 0001
  • -1 的反码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）反码（16位二进制数）
-11000 0000 0000 00011111 1111 1111 1110
IMPORTANT
总结：
  • ① 按照反码的规则，如果是 +0，对应的原码是 0000 0000 0000 0000；那么，其反码还是 0000 0000 0000 0000；如果是 -0，对应的原码是 1000 0000 0000 0000，其反码是 1111 1111 1111 1111，显然不符合实际情况。
  • ② 所以，计算机底层虽然存储和计算的都是二进数，但显然不是反码。
3.5.4 补码 ​
  • 规则：
    • 正数的补码和它的原码相同。
    • 负数的补码是在其反码的基础上 + 1 。
  • +1 的补码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）反码（16位二进制数）补码（16位二进制数）
+10000 0000 0000 00010000 0000 0000 00010000 0000 0000 0001
  • -1 的补码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）反码（16位二进制数）补码（16位二进制数）
-11000 0000 0000 00011111 1111 1111 11101111 1111 1111 1111
  • 如果 0 ，按照 +0 的情况进行处理，如下所示：
  • 如果 0 ，按照 -0 的情况进行处理，如下所示：
  • +1 和 -1 的原码和补码的转换过程，如下所示：
IMPORTANT
总结：
  • ① 补码表示法解决了原码和反码存在的两种零（+0 和 -0）的问题，即：在补码表示法中，只有一个零，即 0000 0000。
  • ②补码使得加法运算和减法运算可以统一处理，通过将减法运算转换为加法运算，可以简化硬件设计，提高了运算效率。
  • ③ 计算机底层存储和计算的都是二进数的补码。换言之，当读取整数的时候，需要采用逆向的转换，即：将补码转换为原码。正数的原码、反码、补码都是一样的，三码合一。负数的补码转换为原码的方法就是先减去 1 ，得到反码，再按位取反，得到原码（符号位是不能借的）。
3.5.5 总结 ​
  • ① 计算机底层存储和计算的都是二进数的补码。换言之，当读取整数的时候，需要采用逆向的转换，即：将补码转换为原码。
  • ② 正数的原码、反码和补码都是一样的，三码合一。
  • ③ 负数的反码是在其原码的基础上，按位取反（0 变 1 ，1 变 0 ），符号位不变；负数的补码是其反码 + 1 。
  • ④ 0 的补码是 0 。
  • ⑤ 负数的补码转换为原码的方法就是先减去 1 ，得到反码，再按位取反，得到原码。
3.6 计算机底层为什么使用补码？ ​
  • 加法和减法是计算机中最基本的运算，计算机时时刻刻都离不开它们，所以它们由硬件直接支持。为了提高加法和减法的运行效率，硬件电路必须设计得尽量简单。
  • 对于有符号位的数字来说，内存需要区分符号位和数值位：对于人类来说，很容易识别（最高位是 0 还是 1）；但是，对于计算机来说，需要设计专门的电路，这无疑增加了硬件的复杂性，增加了计算时间。如果能将符号位和数值位等同起来，让它们一起参与运算，不再加以区分，这样硬件电路就可以变得非常简单。
  • 此外，加法和减法也可以合并为一种运算，即：加法运算。换言之，减去一个数就相当于加上这个数的相反数，如：5 - 3 相当于 5 +（-3），10 -（-9）相当于 10 + 9 。
  • 如果能够实现上述的两个目标，那么只需要设计一种简单的、不用区分符号位和数值位的加法电路，就能同时实现加法运算和减法运算，而且非常高效。其实，这两个目标已经实现了，真正的计算机的硬件电路就是这样设计的。
  • 但是，简化硬件电路是有代价的，这个代价就是有符号数在存储和读取的时候都要继续转换。这也是对于有符号数的运算来说，计算机底层为什么使用补码的原因所在。
3.7 补码到底是如何简化硬件电路的？ ​
  • 假设 6 和 18 都是 short 类型，现在我们要计算 6 - 18 的结果，根据运算规则，它等价于 6 +（-18）。如果按照采用原码来计算，那么运算过程是这样的，如下所示：
NOTE
直接使用原码表示整数，让符号位也参与运算，那么对于减法来说，结果显然是不正确的。
  • 于是，人们开始继续探索，不断试错，终于设计出了反码，如下所示：
NOTE
直接使用反码表示整数，让符号位也参与运算，对于 6 +（-18）来说，结果貌似正确。
  • 如果我们将被减数和减数对调一下，即：计算 18 - 6 的结果，也就是 18 +（-6）的结果，继续采用反码来进行运算，如下所示：
NOTE
  • ① 6 - 18，即：6+（-18），如果采用反码计算，结果是正确的；但是，18 - 6，即：18 +（-6），如果采用反码计算，结果相差 1 。
  • ② 可以推断：如果按照反码来计算，小数 - 大数，结果正确；而大数 - 小数，结果相差 1 。
  • 对于这个相差的 1 必须进行纠正，但是又不能影响小数-大数的结果。于是，人们又绞尽脑汁设计出了补码，给反码打了一个“补丁”，终于把相差的 1 给纠正过来了。那么，6 - 18 按照补码的运算过程，如下所示：
  • 那么，18 - 6 按照补码的运算过程，如下所示：
IMPORTANT
总结：采用补码的形式正好将相差的 1纠正过来，也没有影响到小数减大数，这个“补丁”非常巧妙。
  • ① 小数减去大数，结果为负，之前（负数从反码转换为补码需要 +1）加上的 1 ，后来（负数从补码转换为反码要 -1）还需要减去，正好抵消掉，所以不会受到影响。
  • ② 大数减去小数，结果为正，之前（负数从反码转换为补码需要 +1）加上的 1 ，后来（正数的补码和反码相同，从补码转换为反码不用 -1）就没有再减去，不能抵消掉，这就相当于给计算结果多加了一个 1。
补码这种天才般的设计，一举达成了之前加法运算和减法运算提到的两个目标，简化了硬件电路。
3.8 问题抛出 ​
  • 在 C 语言中，对于有符号位的整数，是使用 0 作为正数，1 作为负数，来表示符号位，并使用数据位来表示的是数据的真值，如下所示：
c
int a = 10;
+}
3.3 进制的运算规则 ​
3.3.1 概述 ​
  • 十进制的运算规则，如下所示： 
    • 逢十进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当十（针对减法而言）。
  • 二进制的运算规则，如下所示： 
    • 逢二进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当二（针对减法而言）。
  • 八进制的运算规则，如下所示： 
    • 逢八进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当八（针对减法而言）。
  • 十六进制的运算规则，如下所示： 
    • 逢十六进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当十六（针对减法而言）。
3.3.2 二进制的运算 ​
  • 二进制的加法：1 + 0 = 1 、1 + 1 = 10、11 + 10 = 101、111 + 111 = 1110。
  • 二进制的减法：1 - 0 = 1 、10 - 1 = 1、101 - 11 = 10、1100 - 111 = 101 。
3.3.3 八进制的运算 ​
  • 八进制的加法：3 + 4 = 7 、5 + 6 = 13、75 + 42 = 137、2427 + 567 = 3216。
  • 八进制的减法：6 - 4 = 2 、52 - 27 = 33、307 - 141 = 146、7430 - 1451 = 5757 。
3.3.4 十六进制的运算 ​
  • 十六进制的加法：6 + 7 = D 、18 + BA = D2、595 + 792 = D27、2F87 + F8A = 3F11。
  • 十六进制的减法：D - 3 = A 、52 - 2F = 23、E07 - 141 = CC6、7CA0 - 1CB1 = 5FEF 。
3.4 进制的转换 ​
3.4.1 概述 ​
  • 不同进制的转换，如下所示：
  • 在计算机中，数据是从右往左的方式排列的；其中，最右边的是低位，最左边的是高位，即：
3.4.2 二进制和十进制的转换 ​
3.4.2.1 二进制转换为十进制 ​
  • 规则：从最低位开始，将每个位上的数提取出来，乘以 2 的 （位数 - 1 ）次方，然后求和。
NOTE
  • ① 在学术界，将这种计算规则，称为位权相加法。
  • ② 八进制转换为十进制、十六进制转换为十进制和二进制转换为十进制的算法相同！！！
  • 示例：十进制转十进制
  • 示例：二进制转十进制
3.4.2.2 十进制转换二进制 ​
  • 规则：将该数不断除以 2 ，直到商为 0 为止，然后将每步得到的余数倒过来，就是对应的二进制。
NOTE
  • ① 在学术界，将这种计算规则，称为短除法或连续除2取余法。
  • ② 很好理解，只有不断地除以 2 ，就能保证最大的数字不超过 2 ，这不就是二进制（只能有 0 或 1）吗？
  • ③ 八进制转换为二进制、十六进制转换为二进制和十进制转换为二进制的算法相同！！！
  • 示例：十进制转十进制
  • 示例：十进制转二进制
3.4.3 二进制转八进制 ​
  • 规则：从右向左，每 3 位二进制就是一个八进制，不足补 0（分组转换法）。
  • 示例：011 101 001 -> 351
3.4.4 二进制转十六进制 ​
  • 规则：从右向左，每 4 位二进制就是一个十六进制，不足补 0（分组转换法）。
  • 示例：1110 1001 -> 0xE9
3.5 原码、反码和补码 ​
3.5.1 概述 ​
  • 机器数：一个数在计算机的存储形式是二进制，我们称这些二进制数为机器数。机器数可以是有符号的，用机器数的最高位来存放符号位，0 表示正数，1 表示负数。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 这里讨论的适用于有符号位的整数，如：int 等。
  • ② 这里讨论的不适用于无符号位的整数，即：unsinged int 等。
  • 真值（数据位）：因为机器数带有符号位，所以机器数的形式值不等于其真实表示的值（真值），以机器数 1000 0001 为例，其真正表示的值（首位是符号位）为 -1，而形式值却是 129 ，因此将带有符号位的机器数的真正表示的值称为机器数的真值。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 这里讨论的适用于有符号位的整数，如：int 等。
  • ② 这里讨论的不适用于无符号位的整数，即：unsinged int 等。
3.5.2 原码 ​
  • 原码的表示与机器数真值表示的一样，即用第一位表示符号，其余位表示数值。
  • 规则： 
    • 正数的原码是它本身对应的二进制数，符号位是 0 。
    • 负数的原码是它本身绝对值对应的二进制数，但是符号位是 1 。
  • +1 的原码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）
+10000 0000 0000 0001
  • -1 的原码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）
-11000 0000 0000 0001
IMPORTANT
  • ① 按照原码的规则，会出现 +0 和 -0 的情况，即：0000 0000 0000 0001（+0）、1000 0000 0000 0001（-0），显然不符合实际情况。
  • ② 所以，计算机底层虽然存储和计算的都是二进数，但显然不是原码。
3.5.3 反码 ​
  • 规则：
    • 正数的反码和它的原码相同。
    • 负数的反码是在其原码的基础上，符号位不变，其余各位取反。
  • +1 的反码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）反码（16位二进制数）
+10000 0000 0000 00010000 0000 0000 0001
  • -1 的反码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）反码（16位二进制数）
-11000 0000 0000 00011111 1111 1111 1110
IMPORTANT
  • ① 按照反码的规则，如果是 +0，对应的原码是 0000 0000 0000 0000；那么，其反码还是 0000 0000 0000 0000；如果是 -0，对应的原码是 1000 0000 0000 0000，其反码是 1111 1111 1111 1111，显然不符合实际情况。
  • ② 所以，计算机底层虽然存储和计算的都是二进数，但显然不是反码。
3.5.4 补码 ​
  • 规则：
    • 正数的补码和它的原码相同。
    • 负数的补码是在其反码的基础上 + 1 。
  • +1 的补码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）反码（16位二进制数）补码（16位二进制数）
+10000 0000 0000 00010000 0000 0000 00010000 0000 0000 0001
  • -1 的补码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）反码（16位二进制数）补码（16位二进制数）
-11000 0000 0000 00011111 1111 1111 11101111 1111 1111 1111
  • 如果 0 ，按照 +0 的情况进行处理，如下所示：
  • 如果 0 ，按照 -0 的情况进行处理，如下所示：
  • +1 和 -1 的原码和补码的转换过程，如下所示：
IMPORTANT
  • ① 补码表示法解决了原码和反码存在的两种零（+0 和 -0）的问题，即：在补码表示法中，只有一个零，即 0000 0000。
  • ②补码使得加法运算和减法运算可以统一处理，通过将减法运算转换为加法运算，可以简化硬件设计，提高了运算效率。
  • ③ 计算机底层存储和计算的都是二进数的补码。换言之，当读取整数的时候，需要采用逆向的转换，即：将补码转换为原码。正数的原码、反码、补码都是一样的，三码合一。负数的补码转换为原码的方法就是先减去 1 ，得到反码，再按位取反，得到原码（符号位是不能借位的）。
3.5.5 总结 ​
  • ① 计算机底层存储和计算的都是二进数的补码。换言之，当读取整数的时候，需要采用逆向的转换，即：将补码转换为原码。
  • ② 正数的原码、反码和补码都是一样的，三码合一。
  • ③ 负数的反码是在其原码的基础上，按位取反（0 变 1 ，1 变 0 ），符号位不变；负数的补码是其反码 + 1 。
  • ④ 0 的补码是 0 。
  • ⑤ 负数的补码转换为原码的方法就是先减去 1 ，得到反码，再按位取反，得到原码（符号位是不能借位的）。
3.6 计算机底层为什么使用补码？ ​
  • 加法和减法是计算机中最基本的运算，计算机时时刻刻都离不开它们，所以它们由硬件直接支持。为了提高加法和减法的运行效率，硬件电路必须设计得尽量简单。
  • 对于有符号位的数字来说，内存需要区分符号位和数值位：对于人类来说，很容易识别（最高位是 0 还是 1）；但是，对于计算机来说，需要设计专门的电路，这无疑增加了硬件的复杂性，增加了计算时间。如果能将符号位和数值位等同起来，让它们一起参与运算，不再加以区分，这样硬件电路就可以变得非常简单。
  • 此外，加法和减法也可以合并为一种运算，即：加法运算。换言之，减去一个数就相当于加上这个数的相反数，如：5 - 3 相当于 5 +（-3），10 -（-9）相当于 10 + 9 。
  • 如果能够实现上述的两个目标，那么只需要设计一种简单的、不用区分符号位和数值位的加法电路，就能同时实现加法运算和减法运算，而且非常高效。其实，这两个目标已经实现了，真正的计算机的硬件电路就是这样设计的。
  • 但是，简化硬件电路是有代价的，这个代价就是有符号数在存储和读取的时候都要继续转换。这也是对于有符号数的运算来说，计算机底层为什么使用补码的原因所在。
3.7 补码到底是如何简化硬件电路的？ ​
  • 假设 6 和 18 都是 short 类型，现在我们要计算 6 - 18 的结果，根据运算规则，它等价于 6 +（-18）。如果按照采用原码来计算，那么运算过程是这样的，如下所示：
NOTE
直接使用原码表示整数，让符号位也参与运算，那么对于减法来说，结果显然是不正确的。
  • 于是，人们开始继续探索，不断试错，终于设计出了反码，如下所示：
NOTE
直接使用反码表示整数，让符号位也参与运算，对于 6 +（-18）来说，结果貌似正确。
  • 如果我们将被减数和减数对调一下，即：计算 18 - 6 的结果，也就是 18 +（-6）的结果，继续采用反码来进行运算，如下所示：
NOTE
  • ① 6 - 18，即：6+（-18），如果采用反码计算，结果是正确的；但是，18 - 6，即：18 +（-6），如果采用反码计算，结果相差 1 。
  • ② 可以推断：如果按照反码来计算，小数 - 大数，结果正确；而大数 - 小数，结果相差 1 。
  • 对于这个相差的 1 必须进行纠正，但是又不能影响小数-大数的结果。于是，人们又绞尽脑汁设计出了补码，给反码打了一个“补丁”，终于把相差的 1 给纠正过来了。那么，6 - 18 按照补码的运算过程，如下所示：
  • 那么，18 - 6 按照补码的运算过程，如下所示：
IMPORTANT
总结：采用补码的形式正好将相差的 1纠正过来，也没有影响到小数减大数，这个“补丁”非常巧妙。
  • ① 小数减去大数，结果为负，之前（负数从反码转换为补码需要 +1）加上的 1 ，后来（负数从补码转换为反码要 -1）还需要减去，正好抵消掉，所以不会受到影响。
  • ② 大数减去小数，结果为正，之前（负数从反码转换为补码需要 +1）加上的 1 ，后来（正数的补码和反码相同，从补码转换为反码不用 -1）就没有再减去，不能抵消掉，这就相当于给计算结果多加了一个 1。
补码这种天才般的设计，一举达成了之前加法运算和减法运算提到的两个目标，简化了硬件电路。
3.8 问题抛出 ​
  • 在 C 语言中，对于有符号位的整数，是使用 0 作为正数，1 作为负数，来表示符号位，并使用数据位来表示的是数据的真值，如下所示：
c
int a = 10;
 int b = -10;
  • 但是，对于无符号位的整数而言，是没有符号位和数据位，即：没有原码、反码、补码的概念。无符号位的整数的数值都是直接使用二进制来表示的（也可以理解为，对于无符号位的整数，计算机底层存储的就是其原码），如下所示：
c
unsigned int a = 10;
 unsigned int b = -10;
  • 这就是导致了一个结果就是：如果我定义一个有符号的负数，却让其输出无符号，必然造成结果不对，如下所示：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
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第一章：数据类型（⭐） ​
1.1 概述 ​
  • 根据变量中存储的值的不同，我们可以将变量分为两类：
    • 普通变量：变量所对应的内存中存储的是普通值。
    • 指针变量：变量所对应的内存中存储的是另一个变量的地址。
  • 如下图所示：
NOTE
普通变量和指针变量的相同点：
  • 普通变量有内存空间，指针变量也有内存空间。
  • 普通变量有内存地址，指针变量也有内存地址。
  • 普通变量所对应的内存空间中有值，指针变量所对应的内存空间中也有值。
普通变量和指针变量的不同点：
  • 普通变量所对应的内存空间存储的是普通的值，如：整数、小数、字符等；指针变量所对应的内存空间存储的是另外一个变量的地址。
  • 普通变量有普通变量的运算方式，而指针变量有指针变量的运算方式（后续讲解）。
  • 那么，在 C 语言中变量的数据类型就可以这么划分，如下所示：
NOTE
  • 根据普通变量中存储的值的类型不同，可以将普通变量类型划分为基本数据类型（整型、字符类型、浮点类型、布尔类型）和复合数据类型（数组类型、结构体类型、共用体类型、枚举类型）。
  • 根据指针变量所指向空间中存储的值的类型不同，可以将指针类型分为基本数据类型指针、复合数据类型指针、函数指针、数组指针等，例如：如果指针所指向的空间保存的是 int 类型，那么该指针就是 int 类型的指针。
1.2 整数类型 ​
1.2.1 概述 ​
  • 整数类型简称整型，用于存储整数值，如：12、20、50 等。
  • 根据所占内存空间大小的不同，可以将整数类型划分为：
  • ① 短整型：
类型存储空间（内存空间）取值范围
unsigned short （无符号短整型）2 字节0 ~ 65,535 (2^16 - 1)
[signed] short（有符号短整型，默认）2 字节-32,768 (- 2^15) ~ 32,767 (2^15 -1)
  • ② 整型：
类型存储空间（内存空间）取值范围
unsigned int（无符号整型）4 字节（通常）0 ~ 4294967295 (0 ~2^32 -1)
[signed] int（有符号整型，默认）4 字节（通常）-2147483648（- 2^31） ~ 2147483647 (2^31-1)
  • ③ 长整型：
类型存储空间（内存空间）取值范围
unsigned long（无符号长整型）4 字节（通常）0 ~2^32 -1
[signed] long（有符号长整型，默认）4 字节（通常）- 2^31 ~ 2^31-1
  • ④ 长长整型：
类型存储空间（内存空间）取值范围
unsigned long long（无符号长整型）8 字节（通常）0 ~2^64 -1
[signed] long long（有符号长整型，默认）8 字节（通常）- 2^63 ~ 2^63-1
IMPORTANT
  • ① 数据类型在内存中占用的存储单元（字节数），就称为该数据类型的长度（步长），如：short 占用 2 个字节的内存，就称 short 的长度（步长）是 2。
  • ② C 语言并没有严格规定各种整数数据类型在内存中所占存储单元的长度，只做了宽泛的限制：
    • short 至少占用 2 个字节的存储单元。
    • int 建议为一个机器字长（指计算机的处理器在一次操作中能够处理的二进制数据的位数，机器字长是处理器的“字”长度，它决定了处理器在一个时钟周期内能够处理的数据量，如：早期的计算机的处理器通常是 8 位的机器字长，意味着处理器一次只能处理 8 位（二进制）数据；之后的计算机的处理器有 16 位的机器字长，意味着处理器一次可以处理 16 位的数据；再之后计算机的处理器有 32 位或 64 位的机器字长，意味着处理器一次可以处理 32 位或 64位的数据）。即：32 位环境下 int 占用 4 个字节的存储单元，64 位环境下 int 占用 8 个字节的存储单元。
    • short 的长度（步长）不能大于 int，long 的长度（步长）不能小于 int，long long 不能小于 long。
  • ③ 那么，各种整数数据类型在内存中所占存储单元的长度的公式就是 2 ≤ sizeof(short) ≤ sizeof(int) ≤ sizeof(long) ≤ sizeof(long long)，具体的存储空间由编译系统自行决定。其中，sizeof 是测量类型或变量、常量长度的运算符。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 之所以这么规定，是为了可以让 C 语言长久使用，因为目前主流的 CPU 都是 64 位，但是在 C 语言刚刚出现的时候，CPU 还是以 8 位和 16 位为主。如果当时就将整型定死为 8 位或 16 位，那么现在我们肯定不会再学习 C 语言了。
  • ② 整型分为有符号 signed 和无符号 unsigned 两种，默认是 signed。
  • ③ 在实际开发中，最常用的整数类型就是 int 类型了，如果取值范围不够，就使用 long 或 long long 。
  • ④ C 语言中的格式占位符非常多，只需要大致了解即可；因为，我们在实际开发中，一般都会使用 C++ 或 Rust 以及其它的高级编程语言，如：Java 等，早已经解决了必须通过格式占位符来才能将变量进行输入和输出。
1.2.2 短整型（了解） ​
  • 语法：
c
unsigned short x = 10 ; // 无符号短整型
c
short x = -10; // 有符号短整型
NOTE
  • ① 有符号表示的是正数、负数和 0 ，即有正负号。无符号表示的是 0 和正数，即正整数，没有符号。
  • ② 在 printf 中无符号短整型（unsigned short）的格式占位符是 %hu ，有符号短整型（signed short）的格式占位符是 %hd 。
  • ③ 可以通过 sizeof 运算符获取无符号短整型（unsigned short） 和 有符号短整型（signed short） 的存储空间（所占内存空间）。
  • ③ 可以通过 #include <limits.h> 来获取 无符号短整型（unsigned short） 和有符号短整型（signed short）的取值范围。
  • 示例：定义和打印短整型变量
c
#include <stdio.h>
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第一章：数据类型（⭐） ​
1.1 概述 ​
  • 根据变量中存储的值的不同，我们可以将变量分为两类：
    • 普通变量：变量所对应的内存中存储的是普通值。
    • 指针变量：变量所对应的内存中存储的是另一个变量的地址。
  • 如下图所示：
NOTE
普通变量和指针变量的相同点：
  • 普通变量有内存空间，指针变量也有内存空间。
  • 普通变量有内存地址，指针变量也有内存地址。
  • 普通变量所对应的内存空间中有值，指针变量所对应的内存空间中也有值。
普通变量和指针变量的不同点：
  • 普通变量所对应的内存空间存储的是普通的值，如：整数、小数、字符等；指针变量所对应的内存空间存储的是另外一个变量的地址。
  • 普通变量有普通变量的运算方式，而指针变量有指针变量的运算方式（后续讲解）。
  • 那么，在 C 语言中变量的数据类型就可以这么划分，如下所示：
NOTE
  • 根据普通变量中存储的值的类型不同，可以将普通变量类型划分为基本数据类型（整型、字符类型、浮点类型、布尔类型）和复合数据类型（数组类型、结构体类型、共用体类型、枚举类型）。
  • 根据指针变量所指向空间中存储的值的类型不同，可以将指针类型分为基本数据类型指针、复合数据类型指针、函数指针、数组指针等，例如：如果指针所指向的空间保存的是 int 类型，那么该指针就是 int 类型的指针。
1.2 整数类型 ​
1.2.1 概述 ​
  • 整数类型简称整型，用于存储整数值，如：12、20、50 等。
  • 根据所占内存空间大小的不同，可以将整数类型划分为：
  • ① 短整型：
类型存储空间（内存空间）取值范围
unsigned short （无符号短整型）2 字节0 ~ 65,535 (2^16 - 1)
[signed] short（有符号短整型，默认）2 字节-32,768 (- 2^15) ~ 32,767 (2^15 -1)
  • ② 整型：
类型存储空间（内存空间）取值范围
unsigned int（无符号整型）4 字节（通常）0 ~ 4294967295 (0 ~2^32 -1)
[signed] int（有符号整型，默认）4 字节（通常）-2147483648（- 2^31） ~ 2147483647 (2^31-1)
  • ③ 长整型：
类型存储空间（内存空间）取值范围
unsigned long（无符号长整型）4 字节（通常）0 ~2^32 -1
[signed] long（有符号长整型，默认）4 字节（通常）- 2^31 ~ 2^31-1
  • ④ 长长整型：
类型存储空间（内存空间）取值范围
unsigned long long（无符号长整型）8 字节（通常）0 ~2^64 -1
[signed] long long（有符号长整型，默认）8 字节（通常）- 2^63 ~ 2^63-1
IMPORTANT
  • ① 数据类型在内存中占用的存储单元（字节数），就称为该数据类型的长度（步长），如：short 占用 2 个字节的内存，就称 short 的长度（步长）是 2。
  • ② C 语言并没有严格规定各种整数数据类型在内存中所占存储单元的长度，只做了宽泛的限制：
    • short 至少占用 2 个字节的存储单元。
    • int 建议为一个机器字长（指计算机的处理器在一次操作中能够处理的二进制数据的位数，机器字长是处理器的“字”长度，它决定了处理器在一个时钟周期内能够处理的数据量，如：早期的计算机的处理器通常是 8 位的机器字长，意味着处理器一次只能处理 8 位（二进制）数据；之后的计算机的处理器有 16 位的机器字长，意味着处理器一次可以处理 16 位的数据；再之后计算机的处理器有 32 位或 64 位的机器字长，意味着处理器一次可以处理 32 位或 64位的数据）。即：32 位环境下 int 占用 4 个字节的存储单元，64 位环境下 int 占用 8 个字节的存储单元。
    • short 的长度（步长）不能大于 int，long 的长度（步长）不能小于 int，long long 不能小于 long。
  • ③ 那么，各种整数数据类型在内存中所占存储单元的长度的公式就是 2 ≤ sizeof(short) ≤ sizeof(int) ≤ sizeof(long) ≤ sizeof(long long)，具体的存储空间由编译系统自行决定。其中，sizeof 是测量类型或变量、常量长度的运算符。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 之所以这么规定，是为了可以让 C 语言长久使用，因为目前主流的 CPU 都是 64 位，但是在 C 语言刚刚出现的时候，CPU 还是以 8 位和 16 位为主。如果当时就将整型定死为 8 位或 16 位，那么现在我们肯定不会再学习 C 语言了。
  • ② 整型分为有符号 signed 和无符号 unsigned 两种，默认是 signed。
  • ③ 在实际开发中，最常用的整数类型就是 int 类型了，如果取值范围不够，就使用 long 或 long long 。
  • ④ C 语言中的格式占位符非常多，只需要大致了解即可；因为，我们在实际开发中，一般都会使用 C++ 或 Rust 以及其它的高级编程语言，如：Java 等，早已经解决了必须通过格式占位符来才能将变量进行输入和输出。
1.2.2 短整型（了解） ​
  • 语法：
c
unsigned short x = 10 ; // 无符号短整型
c
short x = -10; // 有符号短整型
NOTE
  • ① 有符号表示的是正数、负数和 0 ，即有正负号。无符号表示的是 0 和正数，即正整数，没有符号。
  • ② 在 printf 中无符号短整型（unsigned short）的格式占位符是 %hu ，有符号短整型（signed short）的格式占位符是 %hd 。
  • ③ 可以通过 sizeof 运算符获取无符号短整型（unsigned short） 和 有符号短整型（signed short） 的存储空间（所占内存空间）。
  • ③ 可以通过 #include <limits.h> 来获取 无符号短整型（unsigned short） 和有符号短整型（signed short）的取值范围。
  • 示例：定义和打印短整型变量
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -162,7 +162,7 @@ import{_ as p,c as n,j as s,a as i,a6 as a,o as l}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpN
     printf("long long 类型的范围是[%lld,%lld]\\n", LLONG_MIN,LLONG_MAX); // [-9223372036854775808,9223372036854775807]
 
     return 0;
-}
1.2.6 字面量后缀 ​
  • 字面量是源代码中一个固定值的表示方法，用于直接表示数据，即：
c
int num1 = 100; // 100 就是字面量
c
long num2 = 100L; // 100L 就是字面量
c
long long num3 = 100LL; // 100LL 就是字面量
NOTE
  • ① 默认情况下的，整数字面量的类型是 int 类型。
  • ② 如果需要表示 long 类型的字面量，需要添加后缀 l 或 L ，建议 L。
  • ③ 如果需要表示 long long类型的字面量，需要添加后缀 ll 或 LL，建议 LL 。
  • ④ 如果需要表示无符号整数类型的字面量，需要添加 u 或 U，建议 U 。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+}
1.2.6 字面量后缀 ​
  • 字面量是源代码中一个固定值的表示方法，用于直接表示数据，即：
c
int num1 = 100; // 100 就是字面量
c
long num2 = 100L; // 100L 就是字面量
c
long long num3 = 100LL; // 100LL 就是字面量
NOTE
  • ① 默认情况下的，整数字面量的类型是 int 类型。
  • ② 如果需要表示 long 类型的字面量，需要添加后缀 l 或 L ，建议 L。
  • ③ 如果需要表示 long long 类型的字面量，需要添加后缀 ll 或 LL，建议 LL 。
  • ④ 如果需要表示无符号整数类型的字面量，需要添加 u 或 U，建议 U 。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -227,13 +227,13 @@ import{_ as p,c as n,j as s,a as i,a6 as a,o as l}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpN
     printf("%zu \\n", s); // 4
 
     return 0;
-}
1.3 数值溢出 ​
1.3.1 概述 ​
  • 在生活中，如果一个容器的容量是固定的，我们不停的向其中注入水，那么当容器中充满水之后，继续注入，就会溢出，如下所示：
  • 在程序中也是一样的，各种整数类型在内存中占用的存储单元是不同的，如：short 在内存中占用 2 个字节的存储单元，int 在内存中占用 4 个字节的存储单元。这也就意味着，各种整数类型只能存储有限的数值，当数值过大或多小的时候，超出的部分就会被直接截掉，那么数值就不能正确的存储，我们就将这种现象就称为溢出（overflow）。
NOTE
  • 如果这个数目前是最大值，再进行加法计算，数据就会超过该类型能够表示的最大值，叫做上溢出（如果最大值 + 1 会“绕回”到最小值）。
  • 如果这个数目前是最小值，再进行减法计算，数据就会超过该类型能够表示的最小值， 叫做下溢出（如果最小值 - 1 会“绕回”到最大值）。
在 C 语言中，程序产生数值溢出的时候，并不会引起错误而自动停止，是因为计算机直接按照二进制补码的运算规则进行处理；但是，这可能会导致不可预料的后果。因此，编程时要特别注意避免数值溢出，特别是在涉及大数或小数的运算时。
1.3.2 无符号数的取值范围 ​
  • 在 C 语言中，无符号数（unsigned 类型）的取值范围（最大值和最小值）的计算是很容易的，即：将内存中的所有位，设置为 0 就是最小值，设置为 1 就是最大值。
IMPORTANT
在 C 语言中，无符号整数，最高位不是符号位，它是数值的一部分。
  • 以 unsigned char 类型为例，它在内存中占用的存储单元是 1 个字节，即 8 位。如果所有位都设置为 0 ，它的最小值就是 0 ；如果所有位设置为 1 ，它的最大值就是 2⁸ - 1 = 255 ，如下所示：
  • 那么，unsigned char 的最大值是如何计算出来的？最简单的方法就是这样的，如下所示：
txt
  1 × 2⁰ + 1 × 2¹ + 1 × 2² + 1 × 2³ + 1 × 2⁴ + 1 × 2⁵ + 1 × 2⁶ + 1 × 2⁷ 
+}
1.3 数值溢出 ​
1.3.1 概述 ​
  • 在生活中，如果一个容器的容量是固定的，我们不停的向其中注入水，那么当容器中充满水之后，继续注入，就会溢出，如下所示：
  • 在程序中也是一样的，各种整数类型在内存中占用的存储单元是不同的，如：short 在内存中占用 2 个字节的存储单元，int 在内存中占用 4 个字节的存储单元。这也就意味着，各种整数类型只能存储有限的数值，当数值过大或多小的时候，超出的部分就会被直接截掉，那么数值就不能正确的存储，我们就将这种现象就称为溢出（overflow）。
NOTE
  • 如果这个数目前是最大值，再进行加法计算，数据就会超过该类型能够表示的最大值，叫做上溢出（如果最大值 + 1 会“绕回”到最小值）。
  • 如果这个数目前是最小值，再进行减法计算，数据就会超过该类型能够表示的最小值， 叫做下溢出（如果最小值 - 1 会“绕回”到最大值）。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 在 C 语言中，程序产生数值溢出的时候，并不会引发错误而使程序自动停止，是因为计算机底层直接按照二进制补码的运算规则进行处理的（很多编程语言也是这样处理的，如：Java 等）。
  • ② 但是，这可能会导致不可预料的后果，如：1996 年的亚利安5号运载火箭爆炸、2004 年的 Comair 航空公司航班停飞事故。
  • ③ 在实际开发中，编程时要特别注意，以避免数值溢出问题，特别是在涉及大数或小数的运算（特指整数）。
1.3.2 无符号数的取值范围 ​
  • 在 C 语言中，无符号数（unsigned 类型）的取值范围（最大值和最小值）的计算是很容易的，即：将内存中的所有位，设置为 0 就是最小值，设置为 1 就是最大值。
IMPORTANT
在 C 语言中，无符号整数，最高位不是符号位，它是数值的一部分。
  • 以 unsigned char 类型为例，它在内存中占用的存储单元是 1 个字节，即 8 位。如果所有位都设置为 0 ，它的最小值就是 0 ；如果所有位设置为 1 ，它的最大值就是 2⁸ - 1 = 255 ，如下所示：
  • 那么，unsigned char 的最大值是如何计算出来的？最简单的方法就是这样的，如下所示：
txt
  1 × 2⁰ + 1 × 2¹ + 1 × 2² + 1 × 2³ + 1 × 2⁴ + 1 × 2⁵ + 1 × 2⁶ + 1 × 2⁷ 
 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 128 
-= 255
  • 但是，这种计算方法虽然有效，但是非常麻烦，如果是 8 个字节的 long ，那么计算就非常麻烦了（可能要计算半天）。当然，我们也知道，这就是等比数列（高中知识），等比数列的公式，如下所示：
`,104),W={class:"MathJax",jax:"SVG",style:{direction:"ltr",position:"relative"}},Y={style:{overflow:"visible","min-height":"1px","min-width":"1px","vertical-align":"-0.912ex"},xmlns:"http://www.w3.org/2000/svg",width:"15.075ex",height:"2.893ex",role:"img",focusable:"false",viewBox:"0 -875.7 6663.1 1278.6","aria-hidden":"true"},$=a('',1),ss=[$],is=s("mjx-assistive-mml",{unselectable:"on",display:"inline",style:{top:"0px",left:"0px",clip:"rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px)","-webkit-touch-callout":"none","-webkit-user-select":"none","-khtml-user-select":"none","-moz-user-select":"none","-ms-user-select":"none","user-select":"none",position:"absolute",padding:"1px 0px 0px 0px",border:"0px",display:"block",width:"auto",overflow:"hidden"}},[s("math",{xmlns:"http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"},[s("msub",null,[s("mi",null,"S"),s("mi",null,"n")]),s("mo",null,"="),s("msub",null,[s("mi",null,"a"),s("mn",null,"1")]),s("mo",null,"×"),s("mfrac",null,[s("mrow",null,[s("mn",null,"1"),s("mo",null,"−"),s("msup",null,[s("mi",null,"r"),s("mi",null,"n")])]),s("mrow",null,[s("mn",null,"1"),s("mo",null,"−"),s("mi",null,"r")])])])],-1),as={class:"MathJax",jax:"SVG",style:{direction:"ltr",position:"relative"}},ns={style:{overflow:"visible","min-height":"1px","min-width":"1px","vertical-align":"-0.912ex"},xmlns:"http://www.w3.org/2000/svg",width:"28.694ex",height:"3.146ex",role:"img",focusable:"false",viewBox:"0 -987.7 12682.9 1390.6","aria-hidden":"true"},ls=a('',1),ps=[ls],ts=s("mjx-assistive-mml",{unselectable:"on",display:"inline",style:{top:"0px",left:"0px",clip:"rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px)","-webkit-touch-callout":"none","-webkit-user-select":"none","-khtml-user-select":"none","-moz-user-select":"none","-ms-user-select":"none","user-select":"none",position:"absolute",padding:"1px 0px 0px 0px",border:"0px",display:"block",width:"auto",overflow:"hidden"}},[s("math",{xmlns:"http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"},[s("msub",null,[s("mi",null,"S"),s("mn",null,"8")]),s("mo",null,"="),s("mn",null,"1"),s("mo",null,"×"),s("mfrac",null,[s("mrow",null,[s("mn",null,"1"),s("mo",null,"−"),s("msup",null,[s("mn",null,"2"),s("mn",null,"8")])]),s("mrow",null,[s("mn",null,"1"),s("mo",null,"−"),s("mn",null,"2")])]),s("mo",null,"="),s("mfrac",null,[s("mrow",null,[s("mn",null,"1"),s("mo",null,"−"),s("mn",null,"256")]),s("mrow",null,[s("mo",null,"−"),s("mn",null,"1")])]),s("mo",null,"="),s("mn",null,"255")])],-1),hs=s("li",null,[s("p",null,[i("但是，貌似还是很复杂，我们可以换个思路，就是让 "),s("code",null,"1111 1111"),i(" 先 "),s("code",null,"+1"),i(" ，然后再 "),s("code",null,"-1"),i("，这样一增一减正好抵消掉，并且不会影响最终的结果，如下所示：")])],-1),es=a(`
txt
  1111 1111 + 1 - 1
+= 255
  • 但是，这种计算方法虽然有效，但是非常麻烦，如果是 8 个字节的 long ，那么计算就非常麻烦了（可能要计算半天）。当然，我们也知道，这就是等比数列（高中知识），等比数列的公式，如下所示：
`,105),K={class:"MathJax",jax:"SVG",style:{direction:"ltr",position:"relative"}},Y={style:{overflow:"visible","min-height":"1px","min-width":"1px","vertical-align":"-0.912ex"},xmlns:"http://www.w3.org/2000/svg",width:"15.075ex",height:"2.893ex",role:"img",focusable:"false",viewBox:"0 -875.7 6663.1 1278.6","aria-hidden":"true"},$=a('',1),ss=[$],is=s("mjx-assistive-mml",{unselectable:"on",display:"inline",style:{top:"0px",left:"0px",clip:"rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px)","-webkit-touch-callout":"none","-webkit-user-select":"none","-khtml-user-select":"none","-moz-user-select":"none","-ms-user-select":"none","user-select":"none",position:"absolute",padding:"1px 0px 0px 0px",border:"0px",display:"block",width:"auto",overflow:"hidden"}},[s("math",{xmlns:"http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"},[s("msub",null,[s("mi",null,"S"),s("mi",null,"n")]),s("mo",null,"="),s("msub",null,[s("mi",null,"a"),s("mn",null,"1")]),s("mo",null,"×"),s("mfrac",null,[s("mrow",null,[s("mn",null,"1"),s("mo",null,"−"),s("msup",null,[s("mi",null,"r"),s("mi",null,"n")])]),s("mrow",null,[s("mn",null,"1"),s("mo",null,"−"),s("mi",null,"r")])])])],-1),as={class:"MathJax",jax:"SVG",style:{direction:"ltr",position:"relative"}},ns={style:{overflow:"visible","min-height":"1px","min-width":"1px","vertical-align":"-0.912ex"},xmlns:"http://www.w3.org/2000/svg",width:"28.694ex",height:"3.146ex",role:"img",focusable:"false",viewBox:"0 -987.7 12682.9 1390.6","aria-hidden":"true"},ls=a('',1),ps=[ls],ts=s("mjx-assistive-mml",{unselectable:"on",display:"inline",style:{top:"0px",left:"0px",clip:"rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px)","-webkit-touch-callout":"none","-webkit-user-select":"none","-khtml-user-select":"none","-moz-user-select":"none","-ms-user-select":"none","user-select":"none",position:"absolute",padding:"1px 0px 0px 0px",border:"0px",display:"block",width:"auto",overflow:"hidden"}},[s("math",{xmlns:"http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"},[s("msub",null,[s("mi",null,"S"),s("mn",null,"8")]),s("mo",null,"="),s("mn",null,"1"),s("mo",null,"×"),s("mfrac",null,[s("mrow",null,[s("mn",null,"1"),s("mo",null,"−"),s("msup",null,[s("mn",null,"2"),s("mn",null,"8")])]),s("mrow",null,[s("mn",null,"1"),s("mo",null,"−"),s("mn",null,"2")])]),s("mo",null,"="),s("mfrac",null,[s("mrow",null,[s("mn",null,"1"),s("mo",null,"−"),s("mn",null,"256")]),s("mrow",null,[s("mo",null,"−"),s("mn",null,"1")])]),s("mo",null,"="),s("mn",null,"255")])],-1),hs=s("li",null,[s("p",null,[i("但是，貌似还是很复杂，我们可以换个思路，就是让 "),s("code",null,"1111 1111"),i(" 先 "),s("code",null,"+1"),i(" ，然后再 "),s("code",null,"-1"),i("，这样一增一减正好抵消掉，并且不会影响最终的结果，如下所示：")])],-1),es=a(`
txt
  1111 1111 + 1 - 1
 = 10000 0000 - 1
 = 2⁹⁻¹ - 1
 = 2⁸ - 1 
-= 255
  • 其对应的换算过程，如下所示：
IMPORTANT
  • ① 当内存中所有的位都是 1 的时候，这种“凑整”的技巧非常实用！！！
  • ② 按照上述的技巧，我们可以很容易得计算出： 
    • unsinged char（1 个字节） 的取值范围是：[0, 2⁸ - 1]。
    • unsinged short（2 个字节）的取值范围是：[0, 2¹⁶ - 1]。
    • unsinged int（4 个字节）的取值范围是：[0, 2³² - 1]。
    • unsinged long（8 个字节）的取值范围是：[0, 2⁶⁴ - 1]。
1.3.3 有符号数的取值范围 ​
  • 在 C 语言中，有符号数（signed 类型）在计算机底层是以补码的形式存储的（计算的时候，也是以补码的形式进行计算的，并且符号位参与计算）；但是，在读取的时候，需要采用逆向的转换，即：将补码转换为原码。
IMPORTANT
在 C 语言中，有符号整数，最高位是符号位，用于表示正负数。
  • 以 char 类型为例，它的取值范围，如下所示：
补码反码原码值
1111 11111111 11101000 0001-1
1111 11101111 11011000 0010-2
1111 11011111 11001000 0011-3
............
1000 00111000 00101111 1101-125
1000 00101000 00011111 1110-126
1000 00011000 00001111 1111-127
1000 0000-------128
0111 11110111 11110111 1111127
0111 11100111 11100111 1110126
0111 11010111 11010111 1101125
............
0000 00100000 00100000 00102
0000 00010000 00010000 00011
0000 00000000 00000000 00000
  • 从上面的列表中，我们可以得知，char 类型的取值范围是：[-2⁸, 2⁸ - 1]，即：[-128, 127]。
  • 对于 -128 而言，它的补码是 1000 0000，是无法按照传统的补码表示法来计算原码的，因为在补码转换到反码的时候需要 -1 ，而 1000 0000 - 1需要向高位借 1 ，而最高位是符号位是不能借的，这就非常矛盾。
IMPORTANT
计算机规定，1000 0000 这个特殊的补码就表示 -128 。
  • 但是，为什么偏偏是 -128 ，而不是其它数字？是因为 -128 使得 char 类型的取值范围保持连贯，中间没有“空隙”。如果我们按照传统的方式来计算 -128 的补码，如下所示： 
    • ① 原码：在原码表示法中，-128 的数据位是 1000 0000，但是 char 的数据位只有 7 位，那么最高位 1 就变为了符号位，剩下的数据位就是 000 0000；所以，-128 的原码就是 1000 0000。
    • ② 反码：对数据位取反，-128 的反码就是：1111 1111 。
    • ③ 补码：在反码的基础上 +1，得到 1000 0000，是因为符号位被覆盖了，补码最终依然是 1000 0000。
NOTE
-128 从原码转换到补码的过程中，符号位被 1 覆盖了两次，而负数的符号位本来就是 1，被 1 覆盖多少次也不会影响到数字的符号。
  • 虽然从 1000 0000 这个补码推算不出 -128，但是从 -128 却能推算出 1000 0000 这个补码，即：有符号数在存储之前先要转换为补码。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 通过这种方式，-128 就成为了补码的最小值 1000 0000，而这个值不会与其他任何正数或负数的补码冲突。 
    • 如果采用原码存储，那么将会出现 +0 和 -0 的情况，即：0000 0000、1000 0000，这样在取值范围内，就存在两个相同的值，多此一举。
    • 如果采用原码存储，最大值不变是 127 ，但是最小值只能存储到 -127 ，不能存储到 -128，因为 -128 的原码是 1000 0000，和 -0 的原码冲突。
  • ② 这就是补码系统的强大之处，它能让整数的范围连贯，并且实现了加法和减法的统一处理。
  • ③ 按照上述的方法，我们可以很容易得计算出： 
    • char（1 个字节） 的取值范围是：[-2⁸, 2⁸ - 1]。
    • short（2 个字节）的取值范围是：[-2¹⁶, 2¹⁶ - 1]。
    • int（4 个字节）的取值范围是：[-2³², 2³² - 1]。
    • long（8 个字节）的取值范围是：[-2⁶⁴, 2⁶⁴ - 1]。
1.3.4 数值溢出 ​
  • 对于无符号的数值溢出： 
    • 当数据到达最大值的时候，再 +1 就会回到无符号数的最小值。
    • 当数据达到最小值的时候，再 -1 就会回到无符号数的最大值。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 对于无符号整数的运算，如：加、减、乘、除、取余等，其最小值是 0 ，最大值是 2^n - 1 。如果某个计算结果超出了这个范围，计算机会自动将结果对 2^N 取余（模），从而丢失高位，只保留低位。
  • ② 以 8 位无符号整数而言，最大值是 255（1111 1111）；那么， 255 + 1 的结果就是 (2^8 -1 + 1) % 2^8 = 0，商是 256。
  • ③ 以 8 位无符号整数而言，最小值是 0（0000 0000），那么， 0 - 1 的结果就是 (0 - 1) % 2^8 = 255，商是 -1。
  • 那么，无符号的上溢出，原理就是这样的：
  • 那么，无符号的下溢出，原理就是这样的：
  • 对于有符号的数值溢出：
    • 当数据到达最大值的时候，再 +1 就会回到有符号数的最小值。
    • 当数据达到最小值的时候，再 -1 就会回到有符号数的最大值。
  • 那么，有符号的上溢出，原理就是这样的：
  • 那么，有符号的下溢出，原理就是这样的：
IMPORTANT
  • ① 在实际开发中，选择合适的数据类型，以避免数值溢出问题！！！
  • ② 数据溢出错误会导致软件运算结果出错，如：1996 年的亚利安5号运载火箭爆炸、2004 年的 Comair 航空公司航班停飞事故。
  • 示例：无符号的上溢出和下溢出
c
#include <limits.h>
+= 255
  • 其对应的换算过程，如下所示：
IMPORTANT
  • ① 当内存中所有的位都是 1 的时候，这种“凑整”的技巧非常实用！！！
  • ② 按照上述的技巧，我们可以很容易得计算出： 
    • unsinged char（1 个字节） 的取值范围是：[0, 2⁸ - 1]。
    • unsinged short（2 个字节）的取值范围是：[0, 2¹⁶ - 1]。
    • unsinged int（4 个字节）的取值范围是：[0, 2³² - 1]。
    • unsinged long（8 个字节）的取值范围是：[0, 2⁶⁴ - 1]。
1.3.3 有符号数的取值范围 ​
  • 在 C 语言中，有符号数（signed 类型）在计算机底层是以补码的形式存储的（计算的时候，也是以补码的形式进行计算的，并且符号位参与计算）；但是，在读取的时候，需要采用逆向的转换，即：将补码转换为原码。
IMPORTANT
在 C 语言中，有符号整数，最高位是符号位，用于表示正负数。
  • 以 char 类型为例，它的取值范围，如下所示：
补码反码原码值
1111 11111111 11101000 0001-1
1111 11101111 11011000 0010-2
1111 11011111 11001000 0011-3
............
1000 00111000 00101111 1101-125
1000 00101000 00011111 1110-126
1000 00011000 00001111 1111-127
1000 0000-------128
0111 11110111 11110111 1111127
0111 11100111 11100111 1110126
0111 11010111 11010111 1101125
............
0000 00100000 00100000 00102
0000 00010000 00010000 00011
0000 00000000 00000000 00000
  • 从上面的列表中，我们可以得知，char 类型的取值范围是：[-2⁸, 2⁸ - 1]，即：[-128, 127]。
  • 对于 -128 而言，它的补码是 1000 0000，是无法按照传统的补码表示法来计算原码的，因为在补码转换到反码的时候需要 -1 ，而 1000 0000 - 1需要向高位借 1 ，而最高位是符号位是不能借的，这就非常矛盾。
IMPORTANT
计算机规定，1000 0000 这个特殊的补码就表示 -128 。
  • 但是，为什么偏偏是 -128 ，而不是其它数字？是因为 -128 使得 char 类型的取值范围保持连贯，中间没有“空隙”。如果我们按照传统的方式来计算 -128 的补码，如下所示： 
    • ① 原码：在原码表示法中，-128 的数据位是 1000 0000，但是 char 的数据位只有 7 位，那么最高位 1 就变为了符号位，剩下的数据位就是 000 0000；所以，-128 的原码就是 1000 0000。
    • ② 反码：对数据位取反，-128 的反码就是：1111 1111 。
    • ③ 补码：在反码的基础上 +1，得到 1000 0000，是因为符号位被覆盖了，补码最终依然是 1000 0000。
NOTE
-128 从原码转换到补码的过程中，符号位被 1 覆盖了两次，而负数的符号位本来就是 1，被 1 覆盖多少次也不会影响到数字的符号。
  • 虽然从 1000 0000 这个补码推算不出 -128，但是从 -128 却能推算出 1000 0000 这个补码，即：有符号数在存储之前先要转换为补码。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 通过这种方式，-128 就成为了补码的最小值 1000 0000，而这个值不会与其他任何正数或负数的补码冲突。 
    • 如果采用原码存储，那么将会出现 +0 和 -0 的情况，即：0000 0000、1000 0000，这样在取值范围内，就存在两个相同的值，多此一举。
    • 如果采用原码存储，最大值不变是 127 ，但是最小值只能存储到 -127 ，不能存储到 -128，因为 -128 的原码是 1000 0000，和 -0 的原码冲突。
  • ② 这就是补码系统的强大之处，它能让整数的范围连贯，并且实现了加法和减法的统一处理。
  • ③ 按照上述的方法，我们可以很容易得计算出： 
    • char（1 个字节） 的取值范围是：[-2⁸, 2⁸ - 1]。
    • short（2 个字节）的取值范围是：[-2¹⁶, 2¹⁶ - 1]。
    • int（4 个字节）的取值范围是：[-2³², 2³² - 1]。
    • long（8 个字节）的取值范围是：[-2⁶⁴, 2⁶⁴ - 1]。
1.3.4 数值溢出 ​
  • 对于无符号的数值溢出： 
    • 当数据到达最大值的时候，再 +1 就会回到无符号数的最小值。
    • 当数据达到最小值的时候，再 -1 就会回到无符号数的最大值。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 对于无符号整数的运算，如：加、减、乘、除、取余等，其最小值是 0 ，最大值是 2^n - 1 。如果某个计算结果超出了这个范围，计算机会自动将结果对 2^N 取余（模），从而丢失高位，只保留低位。
  • ② 以 8 位无符号整数而言，最大值是 255（1111 1111）；那么， 255 + 1 的结果就是 (2^8 -1 + 1) % 2^8 = 0，商是 256。
  • ③ 以 8 位无符号整数而言，最小值是 0（0000 0000），那么， 0 - 1 的结果就是 (0 - 1) % 2^8 = 255，商是 -1。
  • 那么，无符号的上溢出，原理就是这样的：
  • 那么，无符号的下溢出，原理就是这样的：
  • 对于有符号的数值溢出：
    • 当数据到达最大值的时候，再 +1 就会回到有符号数的最小值。
    • 当数据达到最小值的时候，再 -1 就会回到有符号数的最大值。
  • 那么，有符号的上溢出，原理就是这样的：
  • 那么，有符号的下溢出，原理就是这样的：
  • 示例：无符号的上溢出和下溢出
c
#include <limits.h>
 #include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
@@ -257,7 +257,7 @@ import{_ as p,c as n,j as s,a as i,a6 as a,o as l}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpN
     printf("有符号的下溢出 = %hd \\n", s2); // 32767
 
     return 0;
-}
1.4 浮点类型 ​
1.4.1 概述 ​
  • 在生活中，我们除了使用整数，如：18、25 之外，还会使用到小数，如：3.1415926、6.18 等，小数在计算机中也被称为浮点数（和底层存储有关）。
  • 整数在计算机底层的存储被称为定点存储，如下所示：
  • 小数在计算机底层的存储被称为浮点存储，如下所示：
NOTE
  • ① 计算机底层就是采取类似科学计数法的形式来存储小数的，而科学计数法的表现就是这样的，如：3.12 * 10^-2 ；其中，10 是基数，-2 是指数，而 3.12 是尾数。
  • ② 因为尾数区的内存空间的宽度不同，导致了小数的精度也不相同，所以小数在计算机中也称为浮点数。
  • 在 C 语言中，变量的浮点类型，如下所示：
类型存储大小值的范围有效小数位数
float（单精度）4 字节1.2E-38 ~ 3.4E+386 ~ 9
double（双精度）8 字节2.3E-308 ~ 1.7E+30815 ~ 18
long double（长双精度）16 字节3.4E-4932 ~ 1.2E+493218 或更多
NOTE
  • ① 各类型的存储大小和精度受到操作系统、编译器、硬件平台的影响。
  • ② 浮点型数据有两种表现形式： 
    • 十进制数形式：3.12、512.0f、0.512（.512，可以省略 0 ）
    • 科学计数法形式：5.12e2（e 表示基数 10）、5.12E-2（E 表示基数 10）。
  • ③ 在实际开发中，对于浮点类型，建议使用 double 类型；如果范围不够，就使用 long double 类型。
1.4.2 格式占位符 ​
  • 对于 float 类型的格式占位符，是 %f ，默认会保留 6 位小数；可以指定小数位，如：%.2f 表示保留 2 位小数。
  • 对于 double 类型的格式占位符，是 %lf ，默认会保留 6 位小数；可以指定小数位，如：%.2lf 表示保留 2 位小数。
  • 对于 long double 类型的格式占位符，是 %Lf ，默认会保留 6 位小数；可以指定小数位，如：%.2Lf 表示保留 2 位小数。
  • 如果想输出科学计数法形式的浮点数，则使用 %e。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+}
1.4 浮点类型 ​
1.4.1 概述 ​
  • 在生活中，我们除了使用整数，如：18、25 之外，还会使用到小数，如：3.1415926、6.18 等，小数在计算机中也被称为浮点数（和底层存储有关）。
  • 整数在计算机底层的存储被称为定点存储，如下所示：
  • 小数在计算机底层的存储被称为浮点存储，如下所示：
NOTE
  • ① 计算机底层就是采取类似科学计数法的形式来存储小数的，而科学计数法的表现就是这样的，如：3.12 * 10^-2 ；其中，10 是基数，-2 是指数，而 3.12 是尾数。
  • ② 因为尾数区的内存空间的宽度不同，导致了小数的精度也不相同，所以小数在计算机中也称为浮点数。
  • 在 C 语言中，变量的浮点类型，如下所示：
类型存储大小值的范围有效小数位数
float（单精度）4 字节1.2E-38 ~ 3.4E+386 ~ 9
double（双精度）8 字节2.3E-308 ~ 1.7E+30815 ~ 18
long double（长双精度）16 字节3.4E-4932 ~ 1.2E+493218 或更多
NOTE
  • ① 各类型的存储大小和精度受到操作系统、编译器、硬件平台的影响。
  • ② 浮点型数据有两种表现形式： 
    • 十进制数形式：3.12、512.0f、0.512（.512，可以省略 0 ）
    • 科学计数法形式：5.12e2（e 表示基数 10）、5.12E-2（E 表示基数 10）。
  • ③ 在实际开发中，对于浮点类型，建议使用 double 类型；如果范围不够，就使用 long double 类型。
1.4.2 格式占位符 ​
  • 对于 float 类型的格式占位符，是 %f ，默认会保留 6 位小数，不足 6 位以 0 补充；可以指定小数位，如：%.2f 表示保留 2 位小数。
  • 对于 double 类型的格式占位符，是 %lf ，默认会保留 6 位小数，不足 6 位以 0 补充；可以指定小数位，如：%.2lf 表示保留 2 位小数。
  • 对于 long double 类型的格式占位符，是 %Lf ，默认会保留 6 位小数，不足 6 位以 0 补充；可以指定小数位，如：%.2Lf 表示保留 2 位小数。
NOTE
  • ① 如果想输出科学计数法形式的 float 类型的浮点数，则使用 %e。
  • ② 如果想输出科学计数法形式的 double 类型的浮点数，则使用 %le。
  • ③ 如果想输出科学计数法形式的 long double 类型的浮点数，则使用 %Le。
NOTE
  • ① 浮点数还有一种更加智能的输出方式，就是使用 %g（g 是 general format 的缩写，即：通用格式），%g 会根据数值的大小自动判断，选择使用普通的浮点数格式（%f）进行输出，还是使用科学计数法（%e）进行输出，即：float 类型的两种输出形式。
  • ② 同理，%lg 会根据数值的大小自动判断，选择使用普通的浮点数格式（%lf）进行输出，还是使用科学计数法（%le）进行输出，即：double 类型的两种输出形式。
  • ③ 同理，%Lg 会根据数值的大小自动判断，选择使用普通的浮点数格式（%Lf）进行输出，还是使用科学计数法（%Le）进行输出，即：long double 类型的两种输出形式。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -300,7 +300,7 @@ import{_ as p,c as n,j as s,a as i,a6 as a,o as l}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpN
     printf("d2 = %.2e \\n", d2); // d2 = 3.14e+02
 
     return 0;
-}
1.4.3 字面量后缀 ​
  • 浮点数字面量默认是 double 类型。
  • 如果需要表示 float 类型的字面量，需要后面添加后缀 f 或 F。
  • 如果需要表示 long double 类型的字面量，需要后面添加后缀 l 或 L。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+}
1.4.3 字面量后缀 ​
  • 浮点数字面量默认是 double 类型。
  • 如果需要表示 float 类型的字面量，需要后面添加后缀 f 或 F，建议 F。
  • 如果需要表示 long double 类型的字面量，需要后面添加后缀 l 或 L，建议 L。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -313,7 +313,7 @@ import{_ as p,c as n,j as s,a as i,a6 as a,o as l}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpN
     printf("d3 = %.4Lf \\n", d3); // d3 = 3.1416
 
     return 0;
-}
1.4.4 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间） ​
  • 可以通过 sizeof 运算符来获取 float、double 以及 long double 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+}
1.4.4 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间） ​
  • 可以通过 sizeof 运算符来获取 float、double 以及 long double 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -332,7 +332,20 @@ import{_ as p,c as n,j as s,a as i,a6 as a,o as l}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpN
     printf("double 的取值范围是：[%Lf, %Lf] \\n", LDBL_MIN, LDBL_MAX);
 
     return 0;
-}
1.5 字符类型 ​
1.5.1 概述 ​
  • 在生活中，我们会经常说：今天天气真 好，我的性别是 女，我今年 10 岁，像这类数据，在 C 语言中就可以用字符（char）来表示。
  • 在 C 语言中，变量的字符类型可以表示单个字符，如：'1'、'A'、'&'。
NOTE
  • ① C 语言的出现在 1972 年，由美国人丹尼斯·里奇设计出来；那个时候，只需要 1 个字节的内存空间，就可以完美的表示拉丁体系（英文）文字，如：a-z、A-Z、0-9 以及一些特殊符号；所以，C 语言中不支持多个字节的字符，如：中文、日文等。
  • ② 像拉丁体系（英文）文字，如：a-z、A-Z、0-9 以及一些特殊符号，只需要单个字节的内存存储空间就能存储的，我们就称为窄类型；而像中文、日文等单个字节的内存空间存储不了的，我们就称为宽类型。
  • ③ C 语言中没有字符串类型，是使用字符数组（char 数组）来模拟字符串的，并且字符数组也不是字符串，而是构造类型。
  • ④ 在 C 语言中，如果想要输出中文、日文等多字节字符，就需要使用字符数组（char 数组）。
  • ⑤ 在 C++、Java 等高级编程语言中，已经提供了 String （字符串）类型，原生支持 Unicode，可以方便地处理多语言和特殊字符。
  • 在 C 语言中，可以使用转义字符 \\来表示特殊含义的字符。
转义字符说明
\\b退格
\\n换行符
\\r回车符
\\t制表符
\\"双引号
\\'单引号
\\\\反斜杠
...
1.5.2 格式占位符 ​
  • 在 C 语言中，使用 %c 来表示 char 类型。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+}
1.4.6 整数和浮点数的相互赋值 ​
  • 在 C 语言中，整数和浮点数是可以相互赋值的，即： 
    • 将一个整数赋值给小数类型，只需要在小数点后面加 0 就可以了。
    • 将一个浮点数赋值给整数类型，就会将小数部分丢掉，只会取整数部分，会改变数字本身的值。
WARNING
  • ① 在 C 语言中，浮点数赋值给整数类型，会直接截断小数点后面的数，编译器一般只会给出警告，让我们注意一下（C 语言在检查类型匹配方面不太严格，最好不要养成这样的习惯）。
  • ② 但是，在 Java 等编程语言中，这样的写法是不可以的，会在编译阶段直接报错。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+
+int main() {
+
+    // 禁用 stdout 缓冲区
+    setbuf(stdout, NULL);
+
+    float a = 123;        // 整数赋值给浮点类型，只需要在小数点，后面加 0 即可
+    printf("a=%f \\n", a); // a=123.000000
+
+    int b = 123.00;       // 浮点赋值给整数类型，会直接截断小数点后面的数
+    printf("b=%d \\n", b); // b=123
+    return 0;
+}
1.5 字符类型 ​
1.5.1 概述 ​
  • 在生活中，我们会经常说：今天天气真 好，我的性别是 女，我今年 10 岁，像这类数据，在 C 语言中就可以用字符（char）来表示。
  • 在 C 语言中，变量的字符类型可以表示单个字符，如：'1'、'A'、'&'。
NOTE
  • ① C 语言的出现在 1972 年，由美国人丹尼斯·里奇设计出来；那个时候，只需要 1 个字节的内存空间，就可以完美的表示拉丁体系（英文）文字，如：a-z、A-Z、0-9 以及一些特殊符号；所以，C 语言中不支持多个字节的字符，如：中文、日文等。
  • ② 像拉丁体系（英文）文字，如：a-z、A-Z、0-9 以及一些特殊符号，只需要单个字节的内存存储空间就能存储的，我们就称为窄类型；而像中文、日文等单个字节的内存空间存储不了的，我们就称为宽类型。
  • ③ C 语言中没有字符串类型，是使用字符数组（char 数组）来模拟字符串的，并且字符数组也不是字符串，而是构造类型。
  • ④ 在 C 语言中，如果想要输出中文、日文等多字节字符，就需要使用字符数组（char 数组）。
  • ⑤ 在 C++、Java 等高级编程语言中，已经提供了 String （字符串）类型，原生支持 Unicode，可以方便地处理多语言和特殊字符。
  • 在 C 语言中，可以使用转义字符 \\来表示特殊含义的字符。
转义字符说明
\\b退格
\\n换行符
\\r回车符
\\t制表符
\\"双引号
\\'单引号
\\\\反斜杠
...
1.5.2 格式占位符 ​
  • 在 C 语言中，使用 %c 来表示 char 类型。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -347,7 +360,7 @@ import{_ as p,c as n,j as s,a as i,a6 as a,o as l}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpN
     printf("c3 = %c \\n", c3); // c3 = A
 
     return 0;
-}
1.5.3 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间） ​
  • 可以通过 sizeof 运算符来获取 char 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+}
1.5.3 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间） ​
  • 可以通过 sizeof 运算符来获取 char 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -787,7 +800,7 @@ import{_ as p,c as n,j as s,a as i,a6 as a,o as l}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpN
     printf("整数 %d 的二进制表示：%s \\n", b, getBinary(b));
 
     return 0;
-}
2.6.3 按位与 ​
  • 按位与 & 的运算规则是：如果二进制对应的位上都是 1 才是 1 ，否则为 0 ，即：
    • 1 & 1 的结果是 1 。
    • 1 & 0 的结果是 0 。
    • 0 & 1 的结果是 0 。
    • 0 & 0 的结果是 0 。
  • 示例：9 & 7 = 1
  • 示例：-9 & 7 = 7
2.6.4 按位或 ​
  • 按位与 | 的运算规则是：如果二进制对应的位上只要有 1 就是 1 ，否则为 0 ，即：
    • 1 | 1 的结果是 1 。
    • 1 | 0 的结果是 1 。
    • 0 | 1 的结果是 1 。
    • 0 | 0 的结果是 0 。
  • 示例：9 | 7 = 15
  • 示例：-9 | 7 = -9
2.6.5 按位异或 ​
  • 按位与 ^ 的运算规则是：如果二进制对应的位上一个为 1 一个为 0 就为 1 ，否则为 0 ，即： 
    • 1 ^ 1 的结果是 0 。
    • 1 ^ 0 的结果是 1 。
    • 0 ^ 1 的结果是 1 。
    • 0 ^ 0 的结果是 0 。
NOTE
按位异或的场景有：
  • ① 交换两个数值：异或操作可以在不使用临时变量的情况下交换两个变量的值。
  • ② 加密或解密：异或操作用于简单的加密和解密算法。
  • ③ 错误检测和校正：异或操作可以用于奇偶校验位的计算和检测错误（RAID-3 以及以上）。
  • ……
  • 示例：9 ^ 7 = 14
  • 示例：-9 ^ 7 = -16
2.6.6 按位取反 ​
  • 运算规则：如果二进制对应的位上是 1，则结果为 0；如果是 0 ，则结果为 1 。
    • ~0 的结果是 1 。
    • ~1 的结果是 0 。
  • 示例：~9 = -10
  • 示例：~-9 = 8
2.6.7 二进制左移 ​
  • 在一定范围内，数据每向左移动一位，相当于原数据 × 2。（正数、负数都适用）
  • 示例：3 << 4 = 48 （3 × 2^4）
  • 示例：-3 << 4 = -48 （-3 × 2 ^4）
2.6.8 二进制右移 ​
  • 在一定范围内，数据每向右移动一位，相当于原数据 ÷ 2。（正数、负数都适用）
NOTE
  • ① 如果不能整除，则向下取整。
  • ② 右移运算符最好只用于无符号整数，不要用于负数。因为不同系统对于右移后如何处理负数的符号位，有不同的做法，可能会得到不一样的结果。
  • 示例：69 >> 4 = 4 （69 ÷ 2^4 ）
  • 示例：-69 >> 4 = -5 （-69 ÷ 2^4 ）
2.7 三元运算符 ​
  • 语法：
c
条件表达式 ? 表达式1 : 表达式2 ;
NOTE
  • 如果条件表达式为非 0 （真），则整个表达式的值是表达式 1 。
  • 如果条件表达式为 0 （假），则整个表达式的值是表达式 2 。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+}
2.6.3 按位与 ​
  • 按位与 & 的运算规则是：如果二进制对应的位上都是 1 才是 1 ，否则为 0 ，即：
    • 1 & 1 的结果是 1 。
    • 1 & 0 的结果是 0 。
    • 0 & 1 的结果是 0 。
    • 0 & 0 的结果是 0 。
  • 示例：9 & 7 = 1
  • 示例：-9 & 7 = 7
2.6.4 按位或 ​
  • 按位与 | 的运算规则是：如果二进制对应的位上只要有 1 就是 1 ，否则为 0 ，即：
    • 1 | 1 的结果是 1 。
    • 1 | 0 的结果是 1 。
    • 0 | 1 的结果是 1 。
    • 0 | 0 的结果是 0 。
  • 示例：9 | 7 = 15
  • 示例：-9 | 7 = -9
2.6.5 按位异或 ​
  • 按位与 ^ 的运算规则是：如果二进制对应的位上一个为 1 一个为 0 就为 1 ，否则为 0 ，即： 
    • 1 ^ 1 的结果是 0 。
    • 1 ^ 0 的结果是 1 。
    • 0 ^ 1 的结果是 1 。
    • 0 ^ 0 的结果是 0 。
NOTE
按位异或的场景有：
  • ① 交换两个数值：异或操作可以在不使用临时变量的情况下交换两个变量的值。
  • ② 加密或解密：异或操作用于简单的加密和解密算法。
  • ③ 错误检测和校正：异或操作可以用于奇偶校验位的计算和检测错误（RAID-3 以及以上）。
  • ……
  • 示例：9 ^ 7 = 14
  • 示例：-9 ^ 7 = -16
2.6.6 按位取反 ​
  • 运算规则：如果二进制对应的位上是 1，则结果为 0；如果是 0 ，则结果为 1 。
    • ~0 的结果是 1 。
    • ~1 的结果是 0 。
  • 示例：~9 = -10
  • 示例：~-9 = 8
2.6.7 二进制左移 ​
  • 在一定范围内，数据每向左移动一位，相当于原数据 × 2。（正数、负数都适用）
  • 示例：3 << 4 = 48 （3 × 2^4）
  • 示例：-3 << 4 = -48 （-3 × 2 ^4）
2.6.8 二进制右移 ​
  • 在一定范围内，数据每向右移动一位，相当于原数据 ÷ 2。（正数、负数都适用）
NOTE
  • ① 如果不能整除，则向下取整。
  • ② 右移运算符最好只用于无符号整数，不要用于负数。因为不同系统对于右移后如何处理负数的符号位，有不同的做法，可能会得到不一样的结果。
  • 示例：69 >> 4 = 4 （69 ÷ 2^4 ）
  • 示例：-69 >> 4 = -5 （-69 ÷ 2^4 ）
2.7 三元运算符 ​
  • 语法：
c
条件表达式 ? 表达式1 : 表达式2 ;
NOTE
  • 如果条件表达式为非 0 （真），则整个表达式的值是表达式 1 。
  • 如果条件表达式为 0 （假），则整个表达式的值是表达式 2 。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -797,4 +810,4 @@ import{_ as p,c as n,j as s,a as i,a6 as a,o as l}from"./chunks/framework.hMCIpN
     printf("result = %d\\n", result); // result = 110
 
     return 0;
-}
2.8 运算符优先级 ​
  • C 语言中运算符的优先级，如下所示：
优先级运算符名称或含义结合方向
1[]数组下标➡️（从左到右）
()圆括号
.成员选择（对象）
->成员选择（指针）
2-负号运算符⬅️（从右到左）
（类型）强制类型转换
++自增运算符
--自减运算符
*取值运算符
&取地址运算符
!逻辑非运算符
~按位取反运算符
sizeof长度运算符
3/除➡️（从左到右）
*乘
%余数（取模）
4+加➡️（从左到右）
-减
5<<左移➡️（从左到右）
>>右移
6>大于➡️（从左到右）
>=大于等于
<小于
<=小于等于
7==等于➡️（从左到右）
!=不等于
8&按位与➡️（从左到右）
9^按位异或➡️（从左到右）
10|按位或➡️（从左到右）
11&&逻辑与➡️（从左到右）
12||逻辑或➡️（从左到右）
13?:条件运算符⬅️（从右到左）
14=赋值运算符⬅️（从右到左）
/=除后赋值
*=乘后赋值
%=取模后赋值
+=加后赋值
-=减后赋值
<<=左移后赋值
>>=右移后赋值
&=按位与后赋值
^=按位异或后赋值
|=按位或后赋值
15,逗号运算符➡️（从左到右）
WARNING
  • ① 不要过多的依赖运算符的优先级来控制表达式的执行顺序，这样可读性太差，尽量使用小括号来控制表达式的执行顺序。
  • ② 不要把一个表达式写得过于复杂，如果一个表达式过于复杂，则把它分成几步来完成。
  • ③ 运算符优先级不用刻意地去记忆，总体上：一元运算符 > 算术运算符 > 关系运算符 > 逻辑运算符 > 三元运算符 > 赋值运算符。
第三章：附录 ​
3.1 字符集和字符集编码 ​
3.3.1 概述 ​
  • 字符集和字符集编码（简称编码）计算机系统中处理文本数据的两个基本概念，它们密切相关但又有区别。
  • 字符集（Character Set）是一组字符的集合，其中每个字符都被分配了一个唯一的编号（通常是数字）。字符可以是字母、数字、符号、控制代码（如换行符）等。字符集定义了可以表示的字符的范围，但它并不直接定义如何将这些字符存储在计算机中。
NOTE
ASCII（美国信息交换标准代码）是最早期和最简单的字符集之一，它只包括了英文字母、数字和一些特殊字符，共 128 个字符。每个字符都分配给了一个从 0 到 127 的数字。
  • 字符集编码（Character Encoding，简称编码）是一种方案或方法，它定义了如何将字符集中的字符转换为计算机存储和传输的数据（通常是一串二进制数字）。简而言之，编码是字符到二进制数据之间的映射规则。
NOTE
ASCII 编码方案定义了如何将 ASCII 字符集中的每个字符表示为 7 位的二进制数字。例如：大写字母'A'在 ASCII 编码中表示为二进制的1000001，十进制的 65 。
  • 字符集和字符集编码之间的关系如下：
  • Linux 中安装帮助手册：
3.3.2 ASCII 编码 ​
  • 从冯·诺依曼体系结构中，我们知道，计算机中所有的数据和指令都是以二进制的形式表示的；所以，计算机中对于文本数据的数据也是以二进制来存储的，那么对应的流程如下：
  • 我们知道，计算机是上个世纪 60 年代在美国研制成功的，为了实现字符和二进制的转换，美国就制定了一套字符编码，即英语字符和二进制位之间的关系，即 ASCII （American Standard Code for Information Interchange）编码： 
    • ASCII 编码只包括了英文字符、数字和一些特殊字符，一共 128 个字符，并且每个字符都分配了唯一的数字，范围是 0 - 127。
    • ASCII 编码中的每个字符都使用 7 位的二进制数字表示；但是，计算机中的存储的最小单位是 1 B = 8 位，那么最高位统一规定为 0 。
NOTE
  • ① 其实，早期是没有字符集的概念的，只是后来为了解决乱码问题，而产生了字符集的概念。
  • ② 对于英文体系来说，a-zA-Z0-9以及一些特殊字符一共 128 就可以满足实际存储需求；所以，在也是为什么 ASCII 码使用 7 位二进制（2^7 = 128 ）来存储的。
  • 在操作系统中，就内置了对应的编码表，Linux 也不例外；可以使用如下的命令查看：
shell
man ascii
  • 其对应的 ASCII 编码表，如下所示：
  • 但是，随着计算机的发展，计算机开始了东征之路，由美国传播到东方：
  • 先是传播到了欧洲，欧洲在兼容 ASCII 编码的基础上，推出了 ISO8859-1 编码，即： 
    • ISO8859-1 编码包括基本的拉丁字母表、数字、标点符号，以及西欧语言中特有的一些字符，如：法语中的 è、德语中的 ü 等。
    • ISO 8859-1 为每个字符分配一个单字节（8 位）编码，意味着它可以表示最多 256 （2^8）个不同的字符（编号从 0 到 255）。
    • ISO 8859-1 的前 128 个字符与 ASCII 编码完全一致，这使得 ASCII 编码的文本可以无缝转换为 ISO 8859-1 编码。
  • 计算机继续传播到了亚洲，亚洲（双字节）各个国家分别给出了自己国家对应的字符集编码，如： 
    • 日本推出了 Shift-JIS 编码： 
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围： 
        • 第一个字节：129 - 159 和 224 - 239 。
        • 第二个字节：64 - 126 和 128 - 252 。
    • 韩国推出了 EUC-KR 编码： 
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围：从 41281 - 65278。
    • 中国推出了 GBK 编码： 
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围：33088 - 65278 。
NOTE
  • ① 通过上面日本、韩国、中国的编码十进制范围，我们可以看到，虽然这些编码系统在技术上的编码范围存在重叠（特别是在高位字节区域），但因为它们各自支持的字符集完全不同，所以实际上它们并不直接冲突。
  • ② 但是，如果一个中国人通过 GBK 编码写的文章，通过邮件发送给韩国人，因为韩国和中国在字符集编码上的高位字节有重叠部分，必然会造成歧义。
3.3.3 Unicode 编码 ​
  • 在 Unicode 之前，世界上存在着数百种不同的编码系统，每一种编码系统都是为了支持特定语言或一组语言的字符集。这些编码系统，包括：ASCII、ISO 8859 系列、GBK、Shift-JIS、EUC-KR 等，它们各自有不同的字符范围和编码方式。这种多样性虽然在局部范围内解决了字符表示的问题，但也带来了以下几个方面的挑战：
    • 编码冲突：由于不同的编码系统可以为相同的字节值分配不同的字符，因此在不同编码之间转换文本时，如果没有正确处理编码信息，就很容易产生乱码。这种编码冲突在尝试处理多种语言的文本时尤为突出。
    • 编码的复杂性：随着全球化的发展，软件和系统需要支持越来越多的语言，这就要求开发者和系统同时处理多种不同的编码系统。这不仅增加了开发和维护的复杂性，而且也增加了出错的风险。
    • 资源限制：在早期计算机技术中，内存和存储资源相对有限。不同的编码标准要求系统存储多套字符集数据，这无疑增加了对有限资源的消耗。
    • ……
  • 针对上述的种种问题，为了推行全球化，Unicode 应运而生，Unicode 的核心规则和设计原则是建立一个全球统一的字符集，使得世界上所有的文字和符号都能被唯一地识别和使用，无论使用者位于何地或使用何种语言。这套规则包括了字符的编码、表示、处理和转换机制，旨在确保不同系统和软件间能够无缝交换和处理文本数据。
    • 通用字符集 (UCS)：Unicode 为每一个字符分配一个唯一的编号（称为“码点”）。这些码点被组织在一个统一的字符集中，官方称之为 “通用字符集”（Universal Character Set，UCS）。码点通常表示为 U+ 后跟一个十六进制数，例如：U+0041 代表大写的英文字母 “A”。
    • 编码平面和区段：Unicode 码点被划分为多个 “平面（Planes）”，每个平面包含 65536（16^4）个码点。目前，Unicode定义了 17 个平面（从 0 到16），每个平面被分配了一个编号，从 “基本多文种平面（BMP）” 的 0 开始，到 16 号平面结束。这意味着 Unicode 理论上可以支持超过 110万（17*65536）个码点。
  • Unicode 仅仅只是字符集，给每个字符设置了唯一的数字编号而已，却没有给出这些数字编号实际如何存储，可以通过如下命令查看：
  • 为了在计算机系统中表示 Unicode 字符，定义了几种编码方案，这些方案包括 UTF-8、UTF-16 和 UTF-32 等。 
    • UTF-8：使用 1 - 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，兼容 ASCII，是网络上最常用的编码。
    • UTF-16：使用 2 - 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，适合于需要经常处理基本多文种平面之外字符的应用。
    • UTF-32：使用固定的 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，简化了字符处理，但增加了存储空间的需求。
  • Unicode 字符集和对应的UTF-8 字符编码之间的关系，如下所示：
',273);function ks(ds,rs,cs,Es,gs,Fs){return l(),n("div",null,[K,s("p",null,[s("mjx-container",W,[(l(),n("svg",Y,ss)),is])]),s("ul",null,[s("li",null,[s("p",null,[i("那么，结果就是："),s("mjx-container",as,[(l(),n("svg",ns,ps)),ts])])]),hs]),es])}const us=p(X,[["render",ks]]);export{ys as __pageData,us as default};
+}
2.8 运算符优先级 ​
  • C 语言中运算符的优先级，如下所示：
优先级运算符名称或含义结合方向
1[]数组下标➡️（从左到右）
()圆括号
.成员选择（对象）
->成员选择（指针）
2-负号运算符⬅️（从右到左）
（类型）强制类型转换
++自增运算符
--自减运算符
*取值运算符
&取地址运算符
!逻辑非运算符
~按位取反运算符
sizeof长度运算符
3/除➡️（从左到右）
*乘
%余数（取模）
4+加➡️（从左到右）
-减
5<<左移➡️（从左到右）
>>右移
6>大于➡️（从左到右）
>=大于等于
<小于
<=小于等于
7==等于➡️（从左到右）
!=不等于
8&按位与➡️（从左到右）
9^按位异或➡️（从左到右）
10|按位或➡️（从左到右）
11&&逻辑与➡️（从左到右）
12||逻辑或➡️（从左到右）
13?:条件运算符⬅️（从右到左）
14=赋值运算符⬅️（从右到左）
/=除后赋值
*=乘后赋值
%=取模后赋值
+=加后赋值
-=减后赋值
<<=左移后赋值
>>=右移后赋值
&=按位与后赋值
^=按位异或后赋值
|=按位或后赋值
15,逗号运算符➡️（从左到右）
WARNING
  • ① 不要过多的依赖运算符的优先级来控制表达式的执行顺序，这样可读性太差，尽量使用小括号来控制表达式的执行顺序。
  • ② 不要把一个表达式写得过于复杂，如果一个表达式过于复杂，则把它分成几步来完成。
  • ③ 运算符优先级不用刻意地去记忆，总体上：一元运算符 > 算术运算符 > 关系运算符 > 逻辑运算符 > 三元运算符 > 赋值运算符。
第三章：附录 ​
3.1 字符集和字符集编码 ​
3.3.1 概述 ​
  • 字符集和字符集编码（简称编码）计算机系统中处理文本数据的两个基本概念，它们密切相关但又有区别。
  • 字符集（Character Set）是一组字符的集合，其中每个字符都被分配了一个唯一的编号（通常是数字）。字符可以是字母、数字、符号、控制代码（如换行符）等。字符集定义了可以表示的字符的范围，但它并不直接定义如何将这些字符存储在计算机中。
NOTE
ASCII（美国信息交换标准代码）是最早期和最简单的字符集之一，它只包括了英文字母、数字和一些特殊字符，共 128 个字符。每个字符都分配给了一个从 0 到 127 的数字。
  • 字符集编码（Character Encoding，简称编码）是一种方案或方法，它定义了如何将字符集中的字符转换为计算机存储和传输的数据（通常是一串二进制数字）。简而言之，编码是字符到二进制数据之间的映射规则。
NOTE
ASCII 编码方案定义了如何将 ASCII 字符集中的每个字符表示为 7 位的二进制数字。例如：大写字母'A'在 ASCII 编码中表示为二进制的1000001，十进制的 65 。
  • 字符集和字符集编码之间的关系如下：
  • Linux 中安装帮助手册：
3.3.2 ASCII 编码 ​
  • 从冯·诺依曼体系结构中，我们知道，计算机中所有的数据和指令都是以二进制的形式表示的；所以，计算机中对于文本数据的数据也是以二进制来存储的，那么对应的流程如下：
  • 我们知道，计算机是上个世纪 60 年代在美国研制成功的，为了实现字符和二进制的转换，美国就制定了一套字符编码，即英语字符和二进制位之间的关系，即 ASCII （American Standard Code for Information Interchange）编码： 
    • ASCII 编码只包括了英文字符、数字和一些特殊字符，一共 128 个字符，并且每个字符都分配了唯一的数字，范围是 0 - 127。
    • ASCII 编码中的每个字符都使用 7 位的二进制数字表示；但是，计算机中的存储的最小单位是 1 B = 8 位，那么最高位统一规定为 0 。
NOTE
  • ① 其实，早期是没有字符集的概念的，只是后来为了解决乱码问题，而产生了字符集的概念。
  • ② 对于英文体系来说，a-zA-Z0-9以及一些特殊字符一共 128 就可以满足实际存储需求；所以，在也是为什么 ASCII 码使用 7 位二进制（2^7 = 128 ）来存储的。
  • 在操作系统中，就内置了对应的编码表，Linux 也不例外；可以使用如下的命令查看：
shell
man ascii
  • 其对应的 ASCII 编码表，如下所示：
  • 但是，随着计算机的发展，计算机开始了东征之路，由美国传播到东方：
  • 先是传播到了欧洲，欧洲在兼容 ASCII 编码的基础上，推出了 ISO8859-1 编码，即： 
    • ISO8859-1 编码包括基本的拉丁字母表、数字、标点符号，以及西欧语言中特有的一些字符，如：法语中的 è、德语中的 ü 等。
    • ISO 8859-1 为每个字符分配一个单字节（8 位）编码，意味着它可以表示最多 256 （2^8）个不同的字符（编号从 0 到 255）。
    • ISO 8859-1 的前 128 个字符与 ASCII 编码完全一致，这使得 ASCII 编码的文本可以无缝转换为 ISO 8859-1 编码。
  • 计算机继续传播到了亚洲，亚洲（双字节）各个国家分别给出了自己国家对应的字符集编码，如： 
    • 日本推出了 Shift-JIS 编码： 
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围： 
        • 第一个字节：129 - 159 和 224 - 239 。
        • 第二个字节：64 - 126 和 128 - 252 。
    • 韩国推出了 EUC-KR 编码： 
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围：从 41281 - 65278。
    • 中国推出了 GBK 编码： 
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围：33088 - 65278 。
NOTE
  • ① 通过上面日本、韩国、中国的编码十进制范围，我们可以看到，虽然这些编码系统在技术上的编码范围存在重叠（特别是在高位字节区域），但因为它们各自支持的字符集完全不同，所以实际上它们并不直接冲突。
  • ② 但是，如果一个中国人通过 GBK 编码写的文章，通过邮件发送给韩国人，因为韩国和中国在字符集编码上的高位字节有重叠部分，必然会造成歧义。
3.3.3 Unicode 编码 ​
  • 在 Unicode 之前，世界上存在着数百种不同的编码系统，每一种编码系统都是为了支持特定语言或一组语言的字符集。这些编码系统，包括：ASCII、ISO 8859 系列、GBK、Shift-JIS、EUC-KR 等，它们各自有不同的字符范围和编码方式。这种多样性虽然在局部范围内解决了字符表示的问题，但也带来了以下几个方面的挑战：
    • 编码冲突：由于不同的编码系统可以为相同的字节值分配不同的字符，因此在不同编码之间转换文本时，如果没有正确处理编码信息，就很容易产生乱码。这种编码冲突在尝试处理多种语言的文本时尤为突出。
    • 编码的复杂性：随着全球化的发展，软件和系统需要支持越来越多的语言，这就要求开发者和系统同时处理多种不同的编码系统。这不仅增加了开发和维护的复杂性，而且也增加了出错的风险。
    • 资源限制：在早期计算机技术中，内存和存储资源相对有限。不同的编码标准要求系统存储多套字符集数据，这无疑增加了对有限资源的消耗。
    • ……
  • 针对上述的种种问题，为了推行全球化，Unicode 应运而生，Unicode 的核心规则和设计原则是建立一个全球统一的字符集，使得世界上所有的文字和符号都能被唯一地识别和使用，无论使用者位于何地或使用何种语言。这套规则包括了字符的编码、表示、处理和转换机制，旨在确保不同系统和软件间能够无缝交换和处理文本数据。
    • 通用字符集 (UCS)：Unicode 为每一个字符分配一个唯一的编号（称为“码点”）。这些码点被组织在一个统一的字符集中，官方称之为 “通用字符集”（Universal Character Set，UCS）。码点通常表示为 U+ 后跟一个十六进制数，例如：U+0041 代表大写的英文字母 “A”。
    • 编码平面和区段：Unicode 码点被划分为多个 “平面（Planes）”，每个平面包含 65536（16^4）个码点。目前，Unicode定义了 17 个平面（从 0 到16），每个平面被分配了一个编号，从 “基本多文种平面（BMP）” 的 0 开始，到 16 号平面结束。这意味着 Unicode 理论上可以支持超过 110万（17*65536）个码点。
  • Unicode 仅仅只是字符集，给每个字符设置了唯一的数字编号而已，却没有给出这些数字编号实际如何存储，可以通过如下命令查看：
  • 为了在计算机系统中表示 Unicode 字符，定义了几种编码方案，这些方案包括 UTF-8、UTF-16 和 UTF-32 等。 
    • UTF-8：使用 1 - 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，兼容 ASCII，是网络上最常用的编码。
    • UTF-16：使用 2 - 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，适合于需要经常处理基本多文种平面之外字符的应用。
    • UTF-32：使用固定的 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，简化了字符处理，但增加了存储空间的需求。
  • Unicode 字符集和对应的UTF-8 字符编码之间的关系，如下所示：
3.2 小数在内存中是如何存储的？ ​
',281);function ks(ds,rs,cs,Es,gs,os){return l(),n("div",null,[W,s("p",null,[s("mjx-container",K,[(l(),n("svg",Y,ss)),is])]),s("ul",null,[s("li",null,[s("p",null,[i("那么，结果就是："),s("mjx-container",as,[(l(),n("svg",ns,ps)),ts])])]),hs]),es])}const us=p(X,[["render",ks]]);export{ys as __pageData,us as default};
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similarity index 85%
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diff --git a/index.html b/index.html
index b2864f0..2289230 100644
--- a/index.html
+++ b/index.html
@@ -8,9 +8,9 @@
     
     
     
-    
+    
     
-    
+    
     
     
     
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@
   
   
     
许大仙
深浅模式
许大仙同学
『这个世纪疯狂，没人性，腐败；你却一直清醒，温柔，一尘不染。』
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计组6件套
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前端
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学习思路
学习思路就这么几条：模仿、遍历、分治、动态规划、……
✍️
学习手法
学习手法就这么几种：缓存、索引、信号/事件、回调/消息循环/dispatcher、……
🚨
注意事项
注意事项就这么几点：边界值、等价类、数据完整性原子性、死锁、空转、……
Released under the MIT License.
Copyright © 2024 许大仙

-    
+    
     
   
 
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/00_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/00_xdx/index.html
index ab0d55e..3f9ca90 100644
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+++ b/notes/01_c-basic/00_xdx/index.html
@@ -8,11 +8,11 @@
     
     
     
-    
+    
     
-    
+    
     
-    
+    
     
     
     
@@ -47,19 +47,22 @@
         }
     }
     public static void main(String[] args){
-        int a = 10;                                 // 用户态
-        int b = 20;                                 // 用户态
-        int c = a + b;                              // 用户态
-        string filePath = "c:/demo.txt";            // 用户态
-        string txt = a + b + c;                     // 用户态
+        // 用户态
+        int a = 10;                                 
+        int b = 20;                                 
+        int c = a + b;                              
+        string filePath = "c:/demo.txt";           
+        string txt = a + b + c;                    
         
-        writeFile(filePath, a);                     // 从用户态切换到内核态完成文件写入
+        // 从用户态切换到内核态完成文件写入
+        writeFile(filePath, a);                     
         
-        System.out.println(a);                      // 从内核态切换回用户态
-        System.out.println(b);                      // 用户态
-        System.out.println(c);                      // 用户态
+        // 从内核态切换回用户态
+        System.out.println(a);                      
+        System.out.println(b);                      
+        System.out.println(c);                     
     }
-}
1.4.3 ISA、ABI 和 API ​
  • ISA 、ABI 和 API 的参考模型如下：
  • 在底层，硬件模型以指令集架构 （ISA） 表示，该架构定义了处理器、寄存器、存储器和中断管理的指令集。ISA 是硬件和软件之间的接口，对于操作系统 （OS） 开发人员 （System ISA） 和直接管理底层硬件的应用程序 （User ISA） 的开发人员来说非常重要。
NOTE
  • ① ISA 是计算机体系结构中定义的一组指令，它规定了处理器能够执行的操作。ISA 包括指令的编码、寄存器的使用、内存访问模式等。不同的处理器可能有不同的 ISA，例如：x86、ARM、MIPS 等。
  • ② 在设计一个新的操作系统时，开发者需要确保操作系统能够支持特定的 ISA ，以便在特定的硬件上运行。例如：如果操作系统旨在运行在 ARM 架构的处理器上，那么它必须能够理解和执行 ARM ISA 定义的指令集。
  • 应用程序二进制接口 （ABI） 将操作系统层与由操作系统管理的应用程序和库分开。ABI 涵盖了低级数据类型、对齐方式和调用约定等详细信息，并定义了可执行程序的格式。系统调用在此级别定义。此接口允许应用程序和库在实现相同 ABI 的操作系统之间移植。
NOTE
  • ① ABI 是指在二进制级别上，应用程序与操作系统、库或应用程序的不同部分之间的接口。它定义了数据类型的大小、布局、对齐方式，以及函数调用的约定（如参数如何传递、返回值如何处理等）。ABI 确保了编译后的二进制文件能够在特定的操作系统和硬件平台上正确地运行。
  • ② 在 windows 上的应用程序的运行格式是：PE（portable executable）格式、.dll （dynamic link library）格式和 .lib 格式；而在 Linux 上的应用程序的运行格式是：ELF（executable and linking format）格式、.so （shared object）格式和 .a 格式。
  • ③ 在 Linux 中可以通过 file /bin/ls 命令查看指定可执行应用程序的 ABI 格式；从而也可以论证，在 Windows 上可以运行的程序，在 Linux 上运行不了。
  • ④ 当开发者在 Linux 系统上编写 C 语言程序，并使用特定的编译器（如：GCC）编译时，编译器会遵循 Linux 平台的 ABI 规范来生成二进制文件。这样，生成的可执行文件就可以在任何遵循相同 ABI 规范的 Linux 系统上运行。
  • ⑤ 如果一个应用程序需要跨平台（操作系统）运行，就需要使用一套代码，多平台编译的方式（针对 C 或 C++ 等），即：相同的源代码，在不同平台（操作系统）上使用特定平台的编译器（如：GCC）来分别编译成符合自己平台的 ABI 规范的二进制文件。
  • 最高级别的抽象由应用程序编程接口 （API） 表示，它将应用程序连接到库或底层操作系统。
NOTE
  • ① API 是一组预定义的函数、协议和工具，用于构建软件和应用程序。API 允许不同的软件系统相互交互，它定义了软件组件之间如何相互通信。API 可以是库、框架、协议或服务。
  • ② 在 Web 开发中，开发者可能会使用 JavaScript 的 Fetch API 来与服务器进行通信，获取数据或提交表单。这个 API 提供了一种标准化的方式来发送 HTTP 请求和处理响应，而不需要开发者关心底层的网络协议细节。
1.4.4 系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call） ​
  • 在现代操作系统中，应用程序都不能直接作用于硬件，而是运行在操作系统之上。
  • 并且，在上文的图示中，我们也会看到系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call）的身影，如下：
  • 其实，系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call）的区别如下：
类型系统调用（System Call）函数库（Library Call）
定义系统调用是操作系统提供给程序员的一组接口，这些接口允许用户空间的程序请求操作系统内核提供的服务，比如文件操作、进程控制、通信和内存管理等。函数库调用是指使用高级语言编写的一组预先编译好的函数，这些函数实现了一些常用的功能，比如：字符串处理、数学计算等。程序员可以在自己的程序中直接调用这些函数，而无需重新实现它们。
权限执行系统调用时，会从用户态切换到内核态。这是因为系统调用涉及到访问受保护的系统资源，这些操作必须由操作系统控制以确保系统的稳定性和安全性。函数库调用通常在用户态执行，不涉及到用户态与内核态之间的切换。它们直接使用操作系统通过系统调用提供的服务，或者完全在用户空间内完成计算，不需要操作系统介入。
性能开销由于涉及到用户态与内核态之间的切换，系统调用的执行成本相对较高。因此，频繁的系统调用可能会影响程序的性能。相对于系统调用，函数库调用的性能开销较小。因为它们通常不涉及到模式切换，且执行的操作多在用户空间完成。
示例open()，read()，write()，fork()，exec() 等 UNIX/Linux 系统调用。C 标准库中的 printf() 等函数；数学库中的 sin()，cos() 等函数。
NOTE
  • ① 执行层级：系统调用直接与操作系统内核交互，执行更底层的操作；而函数库调用运行在用户空间，通常使用系统调用来实现其功能。
  • ② 性能开销：系统调用由于涉及到用户态与内核态的切换，性能开销相对较大；函数库调用则因为主要在用户态执行，性能开销较小。
  • ③ 使用目的：系统调用提供了访问操作系统资源和服务的能力；函数库调用则提供了方便、高效执行常见任务的手段。
第二章：初识计算机语言 ​
2.1 计算机语言是什么？ ​
  • 人类语言是人和人之间用于沟通的一种方式，例如：中国人和中国人之间使用普通话沟通，而中国人和美国人交流，则可以使用英语。
NOTE
  • ① 中文有自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则），英文也是自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则）；同样的道理，法语、韩国等各种人类语言都有自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则）。
  • ② 在和别的国家的人进行交流的时候，我们必须正确的表达，对方才会理解我们；否则，如果不熟悉对方国家的语言的语法规则，乱用语法规则，可能会贻笑大方，如：中文中的望其项背原指看见对方的背影，形容差距不大，能赶上；但是，很多人却认为这是形容遥不可及或难以企及的目标。
  • ③ 就算和本国家的人进行交流的时候，我们也必须正确的表达，对方才会理解我们；否则，如果乱用语法规则，可能也会让对方感觉奇怪，听不懂我们的意思，如：借我 5000 RMB 买 iphone 或者 5000 RMB 我买 iphone 借。
  • 计算机编程语言是人和计算机交流的方式。人们可以使用编程语言对计算机下达命令（指令），让计算机完成人们需要的功能。
NOTE
  • ① 计算机语言也有自己固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则），我们必须学习其语法规则，才能控制计算机，让计算机完成我们所需要的功能。
  • ② 计算机语言有很多种，如：C、C++、Java、Go、JavaScript、Python、Scala 等。
2.2 为什么要学习计算机语言？ ​
  • 编程语言到底是什么？编程语言就是由文字和符号组成的，如：
c
#include <stdio.h> // 这是编译预处理指令
+}
1.4.3 ISA、ABI 和 API ​
  • ISA 、ABI 和 API 的参考模型如下：
  • 在底层，硬件模型以指令集架构 （ISA） 表示，该架构定义了处理器、寄存器、存储器和中断管理的指令集。ISA 是硬件和软件之间的接口，对于操作系统 （OS） 开发人员 （System ISA） 和直接管理底层硬件的应用程序 （User ISA） 的开发人员来说非常重要。
NOTE
  • ① ISA 是计算机体系结构中定义的一组指令，它规定了处理器能够执行的操作。ISA 包括指令的编码、寄存器的使用、内存访问模式等。不同的处理器可能有不同的 ISA，例如：x86、ARM、MIPS 等。
  • ② 在设计一个新的操作系统时，开发者需要确保操作系统能够支持特定的 ISA ，以便在特定的硬件上运行。例如：如果操作系统旨在运行在 ARM 架构的处理器上，那么它必须能够理解和执行 ARM ISA 定义的指令集。
  • 应用程序二进制接口 （ABI） 将操作系统层与由操作系统管理的应用程序和库分开。ABI 涵盖了低级数据类型、对齐方式和调用约定等详细信息，并定义了可执行程序的格式。系统调用在此级别定义。此接口允许应用程序和库在实现相同 ABI 的操作系统之间移植。
NOTE
  • ① ABI 是指在二进制级别上，应用程序与操作系统、库或应用程序的不同部分之间的接口。它定义了数据类型的大小、布局、对齐方式，以及函数调用的约定（如参数如何传递、返回值如何处理等）。ABI 确保了编译后的二进制文件能够在特定的操作系统和硬件平台上正确地运行。
  • ② 在 windows 上的应用程序的运行格式是：PE（portable executable）格式、.dll （dynamic link library）格式和 .lib 格式；而在 Linux 上的应用程序的运行格式是：ELF（executable and linking format）格式、.so （shared object）格式和 .a 格式。
  • ③ 在 Linux 中可以通过 file /bin/ls 命令查看指定可执行应用程序的 ABI 格式；从而也可以论证，在 Windows 上可以运行的程序，在 Linux 上运行不了。
  • ④ 当开发者在 Linux 系统上编写 C 语言程序，并使用特定的编译器（如：GCC）编译时，编译器会遵循 Linux 平台的 ABI 规范来生成二进制文件。这样，生成的可执行文件就可以在任何遵循相同 ABI 规范的 Linux 系统上运行。
  • ⑤ 如果一个应用程序需要跨平台（操作系统）运行，就需要使用一套代码，多平台编译的方式（针对 C 或 C++ 等），即：相同的源代码，在不同平台（操作系统）上使用特定平台的编译器（如：GCC）来分别编译成符合自己平台的 ABI 规范的二进制文件。
  • 最高级别的抽象由应用程序编程接口 （API） 表示，它将应用程序连接到库或底层操作系统。
NOTE
  • ① API 是一组预定义的函数、协议和工具，用于构建软件和应用程序。API 允许不同的软件系统相互交互，它定义了软件组件之间如何相互通信。API 可以是库、框架、协议或服务。
  • ② 在 Web 开发中，开发者可能会使用 JavaScript 的 Fetch API 来与服务器进行通信，获取数据或提交表单。这个 API 提供了一种标准化的方式来发送 HTTP 请求和处理响应，而不需要开发者关心底层的网络协议细节。
1.4.4 系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call） ​
  • 在现代操作系统中，应用程序都不能直接作用于硬件，而是运行在操作系统之上。
  • 并且，在上文的图示中，我们也会看到系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call）的身影，如下：
  • 其实，系统调用（System Call）和函数库（Library Call）的区别如下：
类型系统调用（System Call）函数库（Library Call）
定义系统调用是操作系统提供给程序员的一组接口，这些接口允许用户空间的程序请求操作系统内核提供的服务，比如文件操作、进程控制、通信和内存管理等。函数库调用是指使用高级语言编写的一组预先编译好的函数，这些函数实现了一些常用的功能，比如：字符串处理、数学计算等。程序员可以在自己的程序中直接调用这些函数，而无需重新实现它们。
权限执行系统调用时，会从用户态切换到内核态。这是因为系统调用涉及到访问受保护的系统资源，这些操作必须由操作系统控制以确保系统的稳定性和安全性。函数库调用通常在用户态执行，不涉及到用户态与内核态之间的切换。它们直接使用操作系统通过系统调用提供的服务，或者完全在用户空间内完成计算，不需要操作系统介入。
性能开销由于涉及到用户态与内核态之间的切换，系统调用的执行成本相对较高。因此，频繁的系统调用可能会影响程序的性能。相对于系统调用，函数库调用的性能开销较小。因为它们通常不涉及到模式切换，且执行的操作多在用户空间完成。
示例open()，read()，write()，fork()，exec() 等 UNIX/Linux 系统调用。C 标准库中的 printf() 等函数；数学库中的 sin()，cos() 等函数。
NOTE
  • ① 执行层级：系统调用直接与操作系统内核交互，执行更底层的操作；而函数库调用运行在用户空间，通常使用系统调用来实现其功能。
  • ② 性能开销：系统调用由于涉及到用户态与内核态的切换，性能开销相对较大；函数库调用则因为主要在用户态执行，性能开销较小。
  • ③ 使用目的：系统调用提供了访问操作系统资源和服务的能力；函数库调用则提供了方便、高效执行常见任务的手段。
第二章：初识计算机语言 ​
2.1 计算机语言是什么？ ​
  • 人类语言是人和人之间用于沟通的一种方式，例如：中国人和中国人之间使用普通话沟通，而中国人和美国人交流，则可以使用英语。
NOTE
  • ① 中文有自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则），英文也是自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则）；同样的道理，法语、韩国等各种人类语言都有自己的固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则）。
  • ② 在和别的国家的人进行交流的时候，我们必须正确的表达，对方才会理解我们；否则，如果不熟悉对方国家的语言的语法规则，乱用语法规则，可能会贻笑大方，如：中文中的望其项背原指看见对方的背影，形容差距不大，能赶上；但是，很多人却认为这是形容遥不可及或难以企及的目标。
  • ③ 就算和本国家的人进行交流的时候，我们也必须正确的表达，对方才会理解我们；否则，如果乱用语法规则，可能也会让对方感觉奇怪，听不懂我们的意思，如：借我 5000 RMB 买 iphone 或者 5000 RMB 我买 iphone 借。
  • 计算机编程语言是人和计算机交流的方式。人们可以使用编程语言对计算机下达命令（指令），让计算机完成人们需要的功能。
NOTE
  • ① 计算机语言也有自己固定格式和固定词汇（即：语法规则），我们必须学习其语法规则，才能控制计算机，让计算机完成我们所需要的功能。
  • ② 计算机语言有很多种，如：C、C++、Java、Go、JavaScript、Python、Scala 等。
2.2 为什么要学习计算机语言？ ​
  • 编程语言到底是什么？编程语言就是由文字和符号组成的，如：
c
#include <stdio.h> // 这是编译预处理指令
 
 int main() { // 定义主函数
 
@@ -68,8 +71,8 @@
     return 0;  // 函数执行完毕时返回函数值0
 }
  • 编程语言就是用于控制计算机，让其完成我们需要的功能。而我们学习编程语言，其实就是学习这些文字和符号编写的规则。
  • 因为 CPU 只能识别二进制的指令，而我们编写的程序叫做源代码，是人类能看懂；但是，计算机却不能识别。那么，我们就需要让计算机能识别我们编写的源程序，就需要将我们编写的源代码交给编译器程序，其会帮助我们将所编写的源代码转换为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
NOTE
编译器就是运行在操作系统之上的程序，其作用就是用来将程序员编写的源代码转换为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
  • 如果我们用 Java 语言编写了程序（源代码），那么编写的程序也是不能直接运行的，需要通过 Java 语言的编译器将 Java 程序编译为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
  • 如果我们用 Python 语言编写了程序（源代码），那么编写的程序也是不能直接运行的，需要通过 Python 语言的编译器将 Python 程序编译为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
  • ……
NOTE
总结：无论我们学习任何一门编程语言，想要将程序运行起来，都必须做如下的两件事情：
  • ① 学习该语言的文字和符号编写的规则，即：语法规则。
  • ② 需要在操作系统上安装对应编程语言的编译器程序，将源程序编译为计算机能够识别的二进制指令。
2.3 计算机语言简史 ​
2.3.1 机器语言（相当于人类的石器时代） ​
  • 1946 年 2 月 14 日，世界上第一台计算机 ENIAC 诞生，使用的是最原始的穿透卡片。
  • 这种卡片使用的是用二进制代码表示的语言，和人类语言差别极大，这种语言就称为机器语言，如：
txt
0000,0000,000000010000 代表 LOAD A, 16
 0000,0001,000000000001 代表 LOAD B, 1
-0001,0001,000000010000 代表 STORE B, 16
  • 这种语言本质上是计算机能识别的唯一语言，人类很难理解；换言之，当时的程序员 99.9% 都是异类！！！
WARNING
  • ① 不同类型（CPU 架构，如：x86_64、arm 等）的处理器有不同的机器语言指令集，指令集架构（ISA）决定了机器语言的具体形式。
  • ② 换言之，机器语言与特定硬件架构紧密相关，机器语言程序几乎没有可移植性。
2.3.2 汇编语言（相当于人类的青铜&铁器时代） ​
  • 汇编语言使用助记符（如：MOV、ADD、SUB）代替二进制操作码，使程序更易于人类编写和理解；因此，汇编语言也被称为符号语言。
  • 汇编语言的优点是能编写高效率的程序；但是，缺点和机器语言没什么不同，汇编语言同样依赖于具体的计算机架构（面向机器），程序不具备跨平台的可移植性。
WARNING
  • ① 汇编语言，目前仍然应用于工业电子编程领域、软件的加密解密、计算机病毒分析等。
  • ② 汇编语言是编程语言的拓荒年代，它非常底层，直接和计算机硬件打交道，开发效率低，学习成本高。
2.3.3 高级语言（相当于人类的信息时代） ​
  • 高级语言是一种接近于人们使用习惯的程序设计语言。它允许程序员使用接近日常英语的指令来编写程序，程序中的符号和算式也和日常使用的数学公式差不多，接近于自然语言和数学语言，容易被人们掌握。
  • 高级语言独立于计算机硬件，有一定的通用性；计算机不能直接识别和执行用高级语言编写的程序，需要使用编译器或解释器转换为机器语言，才能被计算机识别和执行。
NOTE
  • ① 普遍使用的高级编程语言，有：C、C++、Java、Python、C#、JavaScript、Go、SQL 等。
  • ② C 语言是“面向过程”的编程语言，已经脱离了计算机硬件，可以用来设计和开发中等规模的程序。
  • ③ Java、C++、Python、C# 等都是“面向对象”的编程语言（它们在“面向过程”的基础上又增加了很多概念），可以用来设计和开发中大型规模的程序。
IMPORTANT
C 语言出现的时候，已经度过了编程语言的拓荒年代，具备了现代编程语言的特性，但是这个时候还没有出现“软件危机”，人们没有动力去开发更加高级的语言，所以也没有太复杂的编程思想；而之后出现的“面向对象”的编程思想解决了一部分在“软件危机”上的窘境。
2.3.4 总结 ​
  • 编写语言的对比，如下所示：
类别特征优点缺点示例
机器语言直接由计算机执行的二进制代码执行速度快编写困难，可读性差，与具体硬件强绑定二进制代码
汇编语言用助记符代替二进制代码的低级语言相对机器语言更易编写和理解，允许直接控制硬件资源依然需要了解硬件，不够抽象，与具体硬件或平台相关MOV，ADD 等助记符
高级语言接近人类语言，提供了更高层次的抽象易于编写和维护，可移植性好，支持多种编程范式需要通过编译器或解释器转换为机器语言，可能存在一定的性能损失C，Java， Python 等
IMPORTANT
  • ① 使用机器语言进行编程，对于程序员来说，简直就是噩梦，尤其当功能比较多，程序比较大的时候，不但编写麻烦，需要频繁查询指令手册，而且排查错误非常麻烦，要直接面对一堆二进制数据，想想都令人崩溃（上古程序员，可能真的不是“人”，而是“异类”）。此外，使用二进制指令编程，步骤非常繁琐，要考虑各种边界情况和底层问题，开发效率十分低下。
  • ② 这就倒逼程序员开发出了编程语言，提供自己的生产力，如：汇编语言、C 语言、C++ 语言、Java 语言、Go 语言等等，都是在逐步提高开发效率。至此，编程终于不再是只有极客才能做的事情，不怎么了解计算机的初学者在经过一定时间的训练后也可以编写出有模有样的程序。
  • ③ 在实际开发中，随着计算机科学的发展，现代化的高级编程语言，如：C++ 语言、Java 语言、Go 语言等，因其强大的表达能力、良好的可移植性和易用性，成为了日常软件开发的主流选择。
第三章：初识 C 语言 ​
3.1 C 语言究竟是一门怎样的编程语言？ ​
  • 对于绝大多数程序员而言，C 语言是学习编程的第一门语言，很少有不了解 C 语言的程序员。
NOTE
许多著名编程语言的创造者和计算机科学领域的大佬都有学习和使用过 C 语言，如：詹姆斯·高斯林（James Gosling，Java 之父），比雅尼·斯特劳斯特鲁普（Bjarne Stroustrup，C++ 之父），吉多·范罗苏姆（Guido van Rossum，Python 之父），林纳斯·托瓦兹（Linus Torvalds，Linux 之父）等。
  • C 语言除了能让我们了解编程的相关概念，带领我们走进编程的大门，还能让我们明白程序的运行原理，如：
    • ① 计算机的各个部件是如何协同工作的？
    • ② 程序在内存中是一种怎样的状态？
    • ③ 程序在计算机中到底是如何执行的，以及它的生命周期是什么？
    • ④ 操作系统和应用程序之间，又有着怎样的爱恨情仇？
    • ⑤ ...
  • 这些底层知识决定了我们的发展高度，也决定了我们的职业生涯。如果我们希望能在计算机行业中长远的发展，就必须学习这些相关的底层知识。
IMPORTANT
这些底层知识，包括不限于：数据结构和算法、计算机组成原理、操作系统、计算机网络、设计模式以及编译原理（了解即可）：
  • 数据结构和算法：主要研究数据的组织方式和处理方法，包括：线性表、树、图等数据结构，以及基本的算法思想和分析方法。
  • 计算机组成原理：主要研究计算机系统的硬件组成和工作原理，包括：数字电路、存储器、中央处理器等内容。
  • 操作系统：主要研究计算机系统的软件组成和工作原理，包括：进程/线程/并发（重点）、内存布局和内存管理（重点）、文件系统和磁盘 IO 等内容，以及基本的操作系统概念和设计思路。
  • 计算机网络：主要研究计算机之间的通信原理和协议，包括：网络体系结构（OSI 模型）、传输协议、网络安全等内容，以及基本的网络概念和技术。重点学习 TCP/IP 协议栈、socket 通信（三/四次握手、select、poll、epoll）、HTTPS/HTTP、长链接等内容。
  • 设计模式：是软件设计中常见问题的通用解决方案。不过，在 C 语言中通常是没有的，因为其是面向过程的编程语言，而 C++ 和 Java 等面向对象的编程语言是有设计模式的。
  • 编译原理：主要研究如何将高级编程语言转换为机器语言，有词法分析、语法分析、语义分析、中间代码生成、优化、代码生成等步骤，了解即可。
  • C 语言的概念少，词汇少，只包含了基本的编程元素，相对比较简单。对于初学者来说，学习 C 语言的时间短，成本小。
NOTE
很多人之所以觉得 C 语言难，就是因为栽倒在 C 语言的指针那边（相对比其他的现代化编程语言而言，C 语言的指针确实足够底层和麻烦，需要掌握的细节很多）；但是，一旦有所突破，学习之路就会一马平川。
3.2 C 语言的由来 ​
  • 1969 年，美国贝尔实验室的肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson）和丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）一起开发了 Unix 操作系统。Unix 最初是使用汇编语言编写的，依赖于计算机硬件。为了程序的可读性和可移植性，它们决定使用高级语言重写。但是。当时的高级语言无法满足他们的要求，肯·汤姆森就在 BCPL 语言的基础上发明了 B 语言。
  • 1972 年，丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）在 B 语言的基础上重新设计了一种新的语言，这种新语言取代了 B 语言，即 C 语言。
  • 1973 年，整个 Unix 系统都使用 C 语言重写（重构），大大增强了 Unix 在不同硬件平台的可移植性，这标志着 Unix 的初步成熟，也标志着 C 语言的初步成熟（因为 C 语言可以用于大型项目开发了）。
NOTE
C 语言最初是作为 Unix 系统的开发工具而发明的，它的初衷非常简单，就是被设计成一种非常高效的、可以操作硬件的系统级编程语言，然后帮助团队开发 Unix 操作系统。
  • 此后，这种语言快速流传，广泛用于各种操作系统和系统软件的开发，如：Unix、MS-DOS、Microsoft Windows 以及 Linux 等。
  • 1988 年，美国国家标准协会（ANSI）正式将 C 语言标准化，标志着 C 语言开始稳定和规范化。
3.3 为什么要学习 C 语言？ ​
  • ① C 语言具有可移植好、跨平台的特点：用 C 语言编写的代码可以在不同的操作系统和硬件平台上编译和运行。
NOTE
  • ① C 语言的最原始的设计目的，就是为了将 Unix 操作系统移植到其他的计算机架构上，这使得它从一开始就非常注重可移植性。
  • ② 这边所说的 C 语言的可移植性，是和汇编语言相比的；如果 C 语言和现代化的高级编程语言相比，可移植性还是很差的，如：Java 的口号是“一次编译，到处运行”，Go 的口号是“一次编译，到处执行”。
  • ② C 语言在许多领域应用广泛。 
    • 操作系统：C 广泛用于开发操作系统，如：Unix、Linux 和 Windows。
    • 嵌入式系统：C 是一种用于开发嵌入式系统（如：微控制器、微处理器和其它电子设备）的流程语言。
    • 系统软件：C 用于开发设备驱动程序、编译器和汇编器等系统软件。
    • 网络：C 语言广泛用于开发网络应用程序，例如：Web 服务器、网络协议和网络驱动程序。
    • 数据库系统：C 用于开发数据库系统，例如：Oracle、MySQL 和 PostgreSQL 。
    • 游戏：由于 C 能够处理低级硬件交互，因此经常用于开发计算机游戏。
    • 人工智能：C 用于开发人工智能和机器学习的应用程序，例如：神经网络和深度学习算法。
    • 科学应用：C 用于开发科学应用程序，例如：仿真软件和数值分析工具。
    • 金融应用：C 用于开发股票市场分析和交易系统等金融应用。
  • ③ C 语言能够直接对硬件进行操作、管理内存以及和操作系统对话，这使得它是一种非常接近底层的语言，非常适合写需要和硬件交互、有极高性能要求的程序。
NOTE
  • C 语言毕竟诞生的时间非常早（20 世纪 70 年代），属于 70 后了，有点落后于现在的时代，虽然执行效率高（仅次于汇编语言），但是开发效率低。
  • 随着时间的推移，人们在 C 语言的基础上增加了面向对象的机制（软件危机），形成了一门新的编程语言，它的名字是 C++ 。
  • 但是，C++ 的特性实在是太多了（因为 C++ 兼容 C，并增加了很多自己独有的特性，可以是当今最复杂的编程语言，没有之一），于是人们在 C++ 的基础上，删减了一些非必要的特性，就形成了 Java 和 C# ，也可以认为 Java 和 C# 是 C++--。
  • 当然，近年来，Go 语言也很火，它的设计者之一就是 Unix 操作系统的的开发者肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson），Go 诞生的背景据说是肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson）在 C++ 委员会在为其演讲 C++ 新特性的时候，觉得 C++ 新特性太多太复杂，于是就开发了 Go 语言；所以，Go 语言中有很多 C 语言的身影。
  • 其实，在 C 语言之后的许多编程语言，或多或少都参考了 C 语言；所以，编程界流传了一句话：汇编生 C ，C 生万物。
  • ④ 学习 C 语言有助于快速上手其他编程语言，如：C++（原先是 C 语言的一个扩展，在 C 语言的基础上嫁接了面向对象编程思想）、C#、Java 等，这些语言都继承或深受 C 语言的影响和启发。
  • ⑤ C 语言长盛不衰。C 语言至今，依然是最广泛使用、最流行的编程语言之一，包括很多大学将 C 语言作为计算机教学的入门语言，拥有庞大而活跃的用户社区，这意味着有许多资源和库可供开发人员使用。
  • ⑥ C 语言容易学习，适合入门。和 Java、C++、Python 等更加现代化的高级编程语言相比，C 语言涉及的概念少，附带的标准库小，整体比较简单，容易学习，非常适合初学者入门。
3.4 计算机语言排行榜 ​
  • TIOBE 是一个流行编程语言排行，每月更新。排名权重基于世界范围内工程师数量，Google、Bing、Yahoo! 、Wikipedia、Amazon、Youtube 和百度这些主流的搜索引擎，也将作为排名权重的参考指标。
  • 计算机语言走势图：
3.5 C 语言到底能做什么？ ​
3.5.1 概述 ​
  • 我们知道，这个世界上的编程语言太多太多。其中，最流行的编程语言就是 TOBIE 榜单上的前 50 名。
  • 从应用的范围上来讲，编程语言大致可以分为以下两类，如下所示：
    • ① 通用型编程语言：这些语言设计的目的是能够用于开发多种类型的应用程序，不局限于某个特定领域。它们通常拥有丰富的库和框架支持，可以应用于系统编程、应用开发、Web开发、数据分析等多个领域。
    • ② 专用型编程语言：这些语言是为了解决特定领域的问题而设计的，通常在该领域中表现出色。虽然它们可以在一定程度上用于其他领域，但其核心设计和优化是针对某个特定应用场景的。
  • 常见的专用型编程语言，如下所示：
专用型编程语言描述
SQL专门用于数据库查询和管理，尽管可以嵌入其他编程语言中，但其主要应用是数据库操作。
R主要用于统计分析和数据可视化，广泛应用于数据科学和研究领域。
MATLAB主要用于数值计算、算法开发和数据可视化，广泛应用于工程和科学领域。
VHDL/Verilog用于硬件描述和数字电路设计，主要应用于电子工程领域。
  • 常见的通用型编程语言，如下所示：
通用型编程语言描述
Python广泛应用于Web开发、数据科学、自动化脚本、人工智能等。
Java用于企业级应用、移动应用开发（Android）、Web 开发等。
C++可用于系统编程、游戏开发、嵌入式系统等多个领域。
JavaScript最初用于 Web 前端开发，现在也广泛用于服务器端（Node.js）、桌面应用开发（Electron）等。
NOTE
C 语言是一门通用型的编程语言，并没有针对某个领域进行优化。但是，C 语言也有很多常见的应用领域。
3.5.2 C 语言的常见应用领域 ​
  • C 语言的常见应用领域，如下所示： 
    • ① 单片机或嵌入式开发：单片机通常是一个集成度较高的微控制器，资源有限，如：家电控制、自动化设备、传感器数据采集、智能玩具、汽车电子。嵌入式系统是一个计算机系统，嵌入在更大设备中，用来执行专门的任务。它通常包含硬件和软件两部分，具有专用性、实时性、资源受限等特点，如：消费电子（智能手机、智能手表等）、医疗设备、工业控制系统、汽车电子系统（ECU、ABS）、物联网设备等。
    • ② 上位机开发（桌面软件开发）：其实，这部分的市场已经被其它编程语言蚕食了，如：C++ 的 QT、GTK，Java 的 Swing 、JavaFx，Dart 的 Flutter ，因为 C 语言太过于底层，本身不直接支持跨平台，而且没有丰富的库和框架支持。
    • ③ 系统组件开发： 
      • 基础组件，如：文件系统、进程管理、用户界面（CLI + GUI）等。
      • 核心算法，如：加密/安全算法（MD5、SHA、AES、RSA、SSL）、调度算法（进程和线程调度、内存页面置换）、LZ 压缩算法、CRC 等数据校验算法、随机数生成算法等。
      • 硬件驱动，如：声卡驱动、显卡驱动、网卡驱动、蓝牙驱动、键盘和鼠标驱动、扫描仪驱动、打印机驱动、USB 驱动等。
      • 通信协议，如：TCP/IP 协议族（UDP、DNS、路由选择）、HTTP/HTTPS 、SMTP/POP3/IMAP、FTP、NFC 等。
    • ④ 开发操作系统：这是 C 语言的初衷，它就是为开发操作系统而生的，如：UNIX 内核、Linux 内核以及 Windows 内核，主要就是使用 C 语言开发。
    • ⑤ 开发其它编程语言： 
      • 有些编程语言的编译器（解释器）和标准库就使用 C 语言开发，如： Python、PHP、Rust、Perl。
      • 有些编程语言是在 C 语言的基础上进行的扩展，如： C++、Objective-C、Swift。
    • ⑥ 信号处理：C 语言在电气工程领域也有很多用途，它可以使用信号处理算法来管理微处理器、微控制器等集成电路。
    • ⑦ 音视频处理：C 语言的速度非常快，能够快速地对音频和视频数据进行处理。音频和视频数据通常比较大，需要高效的算法和数据结构来处理，而 C 语言运行速度非常快，能够及时处理这些数据。C 语言提供了丰富的底层库和工具，如：FFmpeg、OpenCV 等，这些库和工具可以方便地对音频和视频数据进行编码、解码、剪辑、处理和转换等操作。
    • ⑧ 数据库开发：数据库是软件领域的基础设施，它的性能直接影响整个应用程序的运行效率，所以必须使用一种高效的语言进行开发。使用 C 语言开发的数据库有：MySQL、SQLite、PostgreSQL 等。
    • ⑨ ...
IMPORTANT
虽然 C 语言的开发场景貌似看起来很多；但是，使用 C 语言的场景几乎就是：底层/系统开发 + 关键组件/模块的开发 + 贴近硬件的开发，这些开发场景非常关注运行效率，或者响应时间，或者硬件资源。
3.6 不学 C 语言，行吗？ ​
  • C 语言相比于其它的现代化高级编程语言而言，如：Java、Go 等，实在是太老了；如果不打算搞嵌入式开发，即便学了，一时半会也用不上。但是，几乎所有大学的计算机/软件专业都将 C 语言作为必修课，这又是为什么呢？
  • 其实，是因为 C 语言是一门基础语言，很多其它的课程都依赖 C 语言。如果你不了解 C 语言，很多课程你是理解不了的，如下所示： 
    • ① 编译原理课程通常是以 C 语言为例进行讲解，因为 C 语言的编译过程相对简单、规范和透明，适合教学。
    • ② 数据结构课程通常也是使用 C 语言进行编程，因为 C 语言比较底层，能够让大家看到数据结构的各种细节。另外，数据结构是一种被频繁调用的组件，必须要追求效率，C 语言再合适不过了。
    • ③ 学习操作系统原理（内存、进程、线程、通信等）也要具备 C 语言基础，否则是学不明白的。
    • ...
  • C 语言是一门面向计算机的语言，它能帮助我们快速了解底层；而其它的高级语言（Python、Java、C# 等）是面向用户的，它能让我们快速上手，搞出点实用的工具来，比如：桌面软件、网站、APP 等。
NOTE
  • ① 借助 C 语言学习原理，相当于修炼内功；使用其它语言开发程序，相当于精通招式。
  • ② 一个既有扎实“内功”又精通“招式”的程序员，无疑能够更好地应对各种编程挑战。
  • 从整体上讲，计算机软件大概可以分为两种： 
    • 一种是基础设施，如：操作系统、数据库、浏览器、云计算系统、大数据系统、编译器/编程语言、通信协议、区块链、标准库/运行库、算法实现等。
    • 一种是应用软件，如：桌面软件、APP、网站、小程序等。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 内功不扎实的话，开发一般的应用软件可能没什么问题。但是，如果想要开发高性能的软件，或者开发基础设施，那是绝对是不行的。
  • ② 万丈高楼平地起，勿在浮沙筑高台！！！
3.7 C 语言的版本选择 ​
3.7.1 概述 ​
  • C 语言是在 B 语言的基础上改进而来的，目的是为了更好地开发 Unix 操作系统。到了 1973 年，Unix 的大部分功能都被 C 语言重写，这标志着 C 语言的初步成熟，因为它可以用于大型项目了。
  • 后来，C 语言被多次改进，越来越强大，为了规范 C 语言的特性和功能，人们发布了多个 C 语言标准。
3.7.2 版本 1（K＆R C） ​
  • K&R C 指的是 C 语言的原始版本。1978 年，C 语言的发明者布莱恩·柯林（Brian Kernighan）和丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）合写了一本著名的教材《C 编程语言》（The C programming language）。
NOTE
由于 C 语言还没有成文的语法标准，这本书就成了公认标准，以两位作者的姓氏首字母作为版本简称 “K&R C”。
3.7.3 版本 2（ANSI C，又称 C89 或 C90） ​
  • 到了 80 年代，C 语言越来越流行，广泛被业界使用，从大型主机到小型微机，各个厂商群雄并起，推出了多款 C 语言的编译器。这些编译器根据行业和厂商自己的需求，进行了各种扩展，C 语言进入了春秋战国时代，逐渐演变成一个松散杂乱的大家族。
  • 为统一 C 语言版本，1989 年，美国国家标准协会（ANSI）制定了一套 C 语言标准，并于次年被国际标准化组织（ISO）通过。它被称为 “ANSI C”，也可以按照发布年份，称为 “C89 或 C90”。
NOTE
目前常用的编译器，如：MSVC（Microsoft Visual C++）、GCC、LLVM Clang 等，都能很好地支持 ANSI C 的内容。
3.7.4 版本 3（C99） ​
  • C 语言标准的第一次大型修订，发生在 1999 年，增加了许多语言特性，如：双斜杠（ // ）的注释语法，可变长度数组、灵活的数组成员、复数、内联函数和指定的初始值设定项，这个版本称为 C99，是目前最流行的 C 版本。
NOTE
这个时候的 C 语言编译器基本已经成熟，各个组织对 C99 的支持所表现出来的兴趣不同：
  • 当 GCC 和其它一些商业编译器支持 C99 的大部分特性的时候。
  • 微软和 Borland 却似乎对此不感兴趣，或者说没有足够的资源和动力来改进编译器。
最终导致不同的编译器在部分语法上存在差异。典型的例子就是：ANSI C 规定，只能用常量表示数组的长度，而 C99 取消了这个限制，数组的长度也可以用变量表示（可变长度数组）。对于 C99 的这个新改动，GCC 和 Clang 是支持的，而 MSVC 却不支持。
3.7.5 版本 4（C11） ​
  • 2011 年，标准化组织再一次对 C 语言进行修订，增加了_Generic、static_assert 和原子类型限定符，这个版本称为 C11。
NOTE
  • ① 需要强调的是，修订标准的原因并不是因为原标准不能用，而是需要跟进新的技术。
  • ② 支持此标准的主流 C 语言编译器有 GCC、LLVM Clang、Intel C++ Compile 等。
3.7.6 版本 5（C17） ​
  • C11 标准在 2017 年进行了修补，但发布是在 2018 年。新版本只是解决了 C11 的一些缺陷，没有引入任何新功能，这个版本称为 C17。
3.7.7 版本 6（C23） ​
  • 2023 年发布，计划进一步增强安全性，消除实现定义的行为，引入模块化语言概念等新特性，使 C 语言在安全和可靠性方面有重大提高。
第四章：C 语言的学习技巧 ​
4.1 如何学习 C 语言？ ​
  • 对于大部分的初学者， 学习 C 语言的目的可能是为了成为一名合格的程序员，开发出优秀的软件。但是，在学习了 C 语言的基本语法后，却发现只能在控制台（黑底白字）上玩玩，没有漂亮的用户界面以及人性化的交互。于是，开始学习数据结构、算法、数据库、操作系统，越陷越深，越来越迷茫，不知道学习 C 语言能做什么，认为学习编程很难，开始怀疑自己，直到放弃！！！
  • 其实，C 语言本身就是一门非常简单的语言，提供的实用功能不多，大部分的时候需要借助操作系统、第三方库以及以及一些硬件，如：单片机等，才能发挥它的威力！！！
IMPORTANT
  • ① 学习 C 语言仅仅是让你踏上程序员之路的第一步而已，只学习 C 语言也做不了什么。
  • ② 系统、扎实的学习 C 语言可以让你了解底层硬件、一些简单的数据结构和算法，并培养计算机思维。
  • 前文，我们提过：C 语言是一门通用性的语言，并没有针对某个领域进行优化。并且，在实际项目中，C 语言主要用于比较底层的开发，例如： 
    • Windows、Linux、Unix 等操作系统的内核 90% 以上都使用 C 语言开发（Rust 语言有望未来，在操作系统开发中占据一席之地，特别是在对安全性和性能要求极高的领域）。
    • 开发硬件驱动，让硬件和操作系统连接起来，这样用户才能更有效的使用硬件。
    • 单片机和嵌入式属于软硬件的结合，是使用 C 语言最多的地方。
    • 开发系统组件或服务，用于支撑上层应用。
    • 如果对软件某个模块，例如：算法和搜索部分的效率要求较高，也可以使用 C 语言来开发。
    • ……
  • 貌似感觉 C 语言的应用还是很多的啊，那为什么感觉学习 C 语言还是做不了什么？原因除了 C 语言通常都是开发最底层的应用之外，最重要的一点就是生态。
IMPORTANT
现代化的高级编程语言的流行程度，除了和编程语言的设计是否优秀有关，最主要的原因就是生态。
  • ① 很多编程语言都自带标准库（语言本身提供的，开箱即用），如：Java、Go 等。
  • ② 很多编程语言都有自己的包管理器（用于管理第三方库）解决方案，如：Java 中的 Maven、Gradle、Go 中的 go modules ，JavaScript 的 npm 等。
遗憾的是，C 语言的标准库非常简单，只有输入输出、文件操作、日期时间、字符串处理、内存管理，对于网络编程、GUI、数据库、并发等需要大量的第三方库或操作系统的功能来扩展 C 语言的功能（Java 语言、Go 语言等其他的现代化高级编程语言，都是直接将这些常见的开发场景内置到标准库中，开箱即用，极大的降低了软件开发的难度）。C 语言的第三方库也不是很多（和其它现代化高级编程语言相比，C 语言的大多数的第三方库都是底层库，支持应用开发的库寥寥无几，只有一个 GTK 库能够开发出桌面软件，几乎没有网站开发以及 APP 开发相关的库），社区也不是很活跃（和其它现代化高级编程语言相比），更别提缺少自己的包管理器。
IMPORTANT
  • ① 换言之，在实际工作中，C 语言几乎是不用做软件、网站、APP 等这些应用层开发，其它的编程语言能够更好地完成任务，没必要非得使用 C 语言，C 语言基本都是用来做底层开发，也就是看不见摸不着的、在后台默默提供服务的那些项目，而这样的项目对初学者来说基本没有实用价值，初学者也不知道它们该怎么使用。
  • ② 初学者想要的 C 语言没有，C 语言能做的初学者用不到，就是这种矛盾，导致初学者非常迷茫。
  • ③ 有人可能会问，C 语言不是还可以用来开发单片机或者嵌入式吗？是的没错，但是这个方向是软硬件结合的，不是在我们的电脑上进行开发，而是在特殊的板子上进行开发，并且还需要学习数字电路、模拟电路、8051/ARM、RTOS、嵌入式 Linux 等方面的知识，只学 C 语言也没有用武之地。
  • ④ 如果你觉得学了 C 语言没用，那么恭喜你，你是对的，应用层的开发一般真的用不上它。
  • ⑤ 但是，没用也要学，学习 C 语言并不一定是要应用它，C 语言可以夯实你的编程基础，尤其是数据结构、算法、内存、线程、进程、通信、操作系统、编译原理等底层的计算机知识，没有 C 语言基础是学不好的。
  • ⑥ 这些底层知识并不一定能够直接应用在实际开发中，但是它们会让你有底气，会让你透彻地理解编程概念，会让你站的“低”看得远，会让你避免很多低级错误，会让你心中有“架构师”的思维。
IMPORTANT
不过，现在 C 语言社区也开始诞生了一些包管理器，如：Conan 和 vcpkg ；也有自己的项目构建工具，如：cmake 、xmake 等。
NOTE
JavaScript 的作者 Brendan Eich（布兰登·艾奇） 曾经这么说：“与其说我爱 JavaScript，不如说我恨它。它是 C 语言和 Self 语言一夜情的产物（致敬 C 语言）。十八世纪英国文学家约翰逊博士说得好："它的优秀之处并非原创，它的原创之处并不优秀。"”
4.2 项目构建工具和包管理器 ​
4.2.1 概述 ​
  • 项目构建工具和包管理器在软件开发中扮演着不同的角色，它们虽然有时会有重叠的功能，但主要关注的点是不同的。
4.2.2 项目构建工具 ​
  • 项目构建工具是用于自动化编译、测试、打包、部署等一系列任务的软件工具。它们帮助开发者简化和管理整个软件开发生命周期中的各个步骤，尤其是在构建过程中的复杂性管理上。
  • 其功能有： 
    • 编译代码：自动编译源代码（如 ：.java、.c 等）为可执行文件或中间文件（如：.class 文件）。
    • 运行测试：集成单元测试、集成测试，自动运行测试用例并生成报告。
    • 打包：将编译后的代码、依赖库、资源文件等打包成可分发的格式（如：JAR、WAR、可执行文件等）。
    • 依赖管理：自动下载、更新和管理项目所需的第三方库（这部分功能有时与包管理器重叠）。
    • 部署：将打包后的应用程序自动部署到测试环境、生产环境等。
    • 任务自动化：除了基本的构建流程外，还可以自动化执行一些常见任务，如：代码检查、文档生成等。
  • 常用的项目构建工具： 
    • Maven（Java）：一个流行的构建工具和依赖管理工具，广泛用于 Java 项目。
    • Gradle（Java、Kotlin、Groovy）：一个灵活的构建工具，支持声明式的构建脚本和多种语言。
    • Make（C/C++）：一个经典的构建工具，使用 Makefile 来定义构建规则和依赖关系。
    • CMake（C/C++）：一个跨平台的构建系统，帮助生成标准的构建文件，如：Makefile 或 Visual Studio 项目文件。
    • ……
4.2.3 包管理器 ​
  • 包管理器是用于自动化安装、更新、配置和管理软件包及其依赖关系的工具。它主要关注于获取和管理项目所需的第三方库或工具包，并确保它们正确地集成到项目中。
  • 其功能有： 
    • 依赖管理：根据项目配置文件（如：package.json、requirements.txt）自动下载和安装项目所需的依赖包。
    • 版本控制：管理包的版本，允许开发者指定某个特定版本或版本范围，确保项目中的库版本一致性。
    • 包的发布和共享：开发者可以通过包管理器发布自己的库，并且共享给社区或组织内部的其他项目使用。
    • 环境隔离：有些包管理器提供虚拟环境功能，可以将不同项目的依赖隔离开，避免版本冲突。
    • 更新和卸载：包管理器可以自动更新依赖包到最新的兼容版本或卸载不再需要的包。
  • 常见的包管理器： 
    • npm（Node.js）：用于管理 JavaScript 和 Node.js 项目的包和模块。
    • pip（Python）：用于安装和管理 Python 的软件包。
    • Cargo（Rust）：Rust 编程语言的包管理器和构建工具。
    • Yarn（JavaScript）：是 npm 的替代品，提供更快和更可靠的包管理体验。
    • Homebrew（macOS）：用于 macOS 系统下的命令行工具和库的管理。
    • ……
4.2.3 注意事项 ​
  • 对于 Java 项目中的 Maven 或 Gradle 而言，其不仅是项目构建工具也是包管理工具。
NOTE
  • ① Gradle 也支持原生项目的开发，如：C 和 C++ 。
  • ② 不过，目前而言，业界开发 C/C++ 项目时，使用最多的项目构建工具和包管理器是 Cmake 和 Conan 。
4.3 C 语言为什么没有应用层开发的库？ ​
  • C 语言是一门“古老”的语言了，它只支持面向过程编程，不支持面向对象编程和泛型编程，在中大型的应用层项目开发中，C 语言已经显得捉襟见肘了，C++、Java、Python、C#、JavaScript 等其他编程语言能够更好地胜任，为 C 语言开发应用层的库简直是费力不讨好，所以几乎没人这么做。
  • GTK 算是一个应用层的库，它使用 C 语言开发，但是为了适应市场，GTK 也提供了其它编程语言的接口，如：C++、Python 等。
  • 先不用管面向过程、面向对象、泛型这些晦涩的编程概念；简单地理解就是，C 语言支持的特性少，用起来费劲，开发效率低，而 C++、Java、Python、C#、JavaScript 等支持的特性多，用起来方便，开发效率高。
  • C 语言的优势是运行效率极高，这正是底层开发所看重的。底层开发有时候就是一个模块，或者是一个服务，规模不算大，但是对效率有严格的要求，此时用 C 语言就非常合适，所以针对底层开发的 C 语言库较多，因为它们有非常大的实用价值。
第五章：附录 ​
5.1 嵌入式领域中的 C 语言 ​
5.1.1 概述 ​
  • C 语言在 C51、STM32 和 ARM 平台上的应用场景非常广泛，涵盖了各种嵌入式系统的开发需求。
5.1.2 C51（8051 系列微控制器） ​
  • 背景：8051 是由 Intel 于 1980 年设计的一种 8 位微控制器架构。它具有指令集简单、结构紧凑的特点，广泛应用于低端嵌入式系统中。
  • 开发工具：C51 是指针对 8051 系列微控制器的 C 语言编译器，如：Keil C51。这种编译器将 C 语言代码编译为适合 8051 架构的汇编代码。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 8051 微控制器上的应用使得开发更加高效和可维护。尽管 8051 的硬件资源有限，但 C 语言仍然能够在不损失性能的前提下提供高级编程的便利。
  • 应用场景： 
    • 简单的控制系统：家用电器（微波炉、洗衣机、空调）的控制板等。这些设备通常不需要复杂的运算能力，但要求可靠和稳定的控制。
    • 低功耗传感器接口：C51 微控制器常用于低功耗传感器的数据采集和传输，如：温度、湿度、压力传感器。
    • 工业自动化设备：用于简单的工业自动化控制，如：小型电机驱动、工业传感器数据处理和传输。
    • 电子玩具：许多简单的电子玩具使用 8051 系列微控制器来控制声音、LED 灯光、显示屏等。
NOTE
总结：C51 微控制器适用于资源受限、需要低成本的简单控制系统，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发！！！
5.1.3 STM32（STM32 系列微控制器） ​
  • 背景：STM32 是意法半导体（STMicroelectronics）推出的一系列基于 ARM Cortex-M 内核的 32 位微控制器。它们广泛用于需要高性能和低功耗的嵌入式应用中，如：工业控制、消费电子和物联网设备。
  • 开发工具：开发 STM32 微控制器通常使用 Keil、IAR Embedded Workbench 或 STM32CubeIDE 等开发环境。这些环境中使用的编程语言主要是 C（有时也包括 C++）。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 STM32 上的应用非常广泛，开发者可以利用它直接控制硬件寄存器，同时也能方便地使用 STM32 提供的 HAL（硬件抽象层）库或 LL（低层）库进行开发。C 语言在这个平台上不仅能实现底层控制，还能编写复杂的应用逻辑。
  • 应用场景： 
    • 物联网（IoT）设备：STM32 微控制器常用于各种物联网设备，如：智能家居控制系统、环境监测设备、可穿戴设备等。这些设备通常需要低功耗和强大的处理能力，并且需要支持多种通信协议，如：Wi-Fi、Bluetooth、LoRa。
    • 消费电子：智能手表、健身追踪器、电子书阅读器、无人机等，这些设备需要具备实时处理能力、低功耗和良好的外设支持。
    • 医疗设备：STM32 微控制器被广泛应用于便携式医疗设备中，如：血糖监测仪、心率监测器、便携式超声设备等，这些设备需要精确的传感器数据采集和处理。
    • 工业自动化控制：PLC（可编程逻辑控制器）、工业机器人、伺服电机控制等，STM32 能够处理复杂的控制算法和实时任务。
    • 汽车电子：用于汽车中的传感器管理、车载信息娱乐系统、车身控制系统（车窗、电动座椅调节等）。
NOTE
总结：STM32 微控制器在物联网、消费电子、医疗设备和工业控制等领域表现出色，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发，因为 C 语言允许直接进行硬件控制并支持复杂的应用开发。
5.1.3 ARM 架构（特别是 ARM Cortex 系列） ​
  • 背景：ARM 是一种广泛使用的处理器架构，特别是在嵌入式系统中，ARM Cortex 系列处理器（如 Cortex-M、Cortex-R 和 Cortex-A）非常流行。Cortex-M 系列主要用于微控制器，Cortex-R 用于实时系统，Cortex-A 则用于高性能嵌入式系统。
  • 开发工具：针对 ARM 架构的开发，常用工具包括 ARM Keil MDK、IAR、GCC for ARM 和 ARM Development Studio。这些工具均支持使用 C 语言进行开发。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 ARM 架构上的应用广泛。它被用于操作系统内核（如 FreeRTOS、Zephyr）、设备驱动、应用层逻辑等。在 ARM Cortex-M 和 Cortex-R 系列中，C 语言的高效性和低级别硬件访问能力是开发实时、低延迟系统的关键。
  • 应用场景： 
    • 高级嵌入式操作系统：ARM Cortex-A 系列处理器广泛用于运行 Linux、Android 等操作系统的嵌入式设备，如：智能手机、平板电脑、智能电视和车载娱乐系统。
    • 实时系统：ARM Cortex-R 系列处理器用于实时系统，如：汽车的 ABS（防抱死制动系统）、ESC（电子稳定控制系统），以及航空电子设备，这些系统要求极低的延迟和高可靠性。
    • 高性能物联网网关：Cortex-A 系列处理器可以用来开发支持多协议、多设备管理的物联网网关，这些网关通常需要强大的计算能力和多线程处理能力。
    • 边缘计算设备：在边缘计算场景中，ARM Cortex-A 处理器用于执行本地数据处理和决策，如：视频分析、图像处理、语音识别等。
    • 智能家居设备：ARM Cortex-M 系列微控制器广泛应用于智能家居产品，如：智能灯泡、智能音箱、家庭安全系统，这些设备需要高效的处理能力和低功耗。
    • 机器人控制系统：ARM Cortex-M 和 Cortex-A 系列处理器用于机器人系统的控制和通信，如：无人机、工业机器人、服务机器人等，处理复杂的运动控制、路径规划和传感器数据融合。
NOTE
总结：ARM Cortex 系列适用于从实时系统到高级嵌入式操作系统的各类应用，支持从低功耗控制到高性能计算的多种需求，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发，因为 C 语言不仅用于控制硬件，还广泛应用于操作系统和应用程序的开发。
5.2 C 和 C++ 的关系 ​
  • 起源和发展： 
    • C 语言：C 语言由丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）在 1972 年开发，最初用于开发操作系统，特别是 UNIX。它是一种结构化的编程语言，提供了对硬件的低级访问，且效率高，因此在系统编程中广泛使用。
    • C++ 语言：C++ 由比雅尼·斯特劳斯特鲁普（Bjarne Stroustrup）在 20 世纪 80 年代初开发，作为 C 语言的扩展。它引入了面向对象编程的概念，同时保留了 C 语言的高效性和底层操作能力。C++ 最初被称为 “C with Classes”（带类的 C），后来发展成一种独立的编程语言。
  • 兼容型： 
    • 语法兼容：C++ 几乎完全兼容 C 语言的语法，这意味着大多数 C 代码可以在 C++ 编译器下直接编译运行。C++ 可以看作是 C 语言的超集（虽然不完全是 100% 兼容，但差异较少）。
    • 扩展性：C++ 在 C 的基础上增加了许多新特性，如：类和对象、继承、多态、模板和异常处理等。这使得 C++ 不仅适合系统编程，还可以用于开发复杂的应用程序。
  • 编程范式： 
    • C 语言：主要是面向过程编程，强调的是函数调用和控制结构。
    • C++ 语言：支持多种编程范式，包括：面向过程、面向对象和泛型编程，使得开发者可以更灵活地选择适合的编程风格。
  • 性能与应用： 
    • 性能：由于 C++ 包含了更多的高级特性，它的编译时间和运行时开销可能比 C 稍高。但得益于其优化机制，C++ 仍然可以实现与 C 语言相近的性能。
    • 应用场景：C 语言仍然在嵌入式系统、驱动程序开发和其他对性能要求极高的场合中占据重要地位。而 C++ 则被广泛用于游戏开发、图形处理、大型软件系统等需要复杂结构和抽象的领域。
NOTE
C++ 是 C 语言的继承者和扩展，它保留了 C 语言的优势，并引入了更多现代编程语言的特性，使得它在更广泛的应用领域中得到应用。

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- +0001,0001,000000010000 代表 STORE B, 16
  • 这种语言本质上是计算机能识别的唯一语言，人类很难理解；换言之，当时的程序员 99.9% 都是异类！！！

WARNING

  • ① 不同类型（CPU 架构，如：x86_64、arm 等）的处理器有不同的机器语言指令集，指令集架构（ISA）决定了机器语言的具体形式。
  • ② 换言之，机器语言与特定硬件架构紧密相关，机器语言程序几乎没有可移植性。

2.3.2 汇编语言（相当于人类的青铜&铁器时代） ​

  • 汇编语言使用助记符（如：MOV、ADD、SUB）代替二进制操作码，使程序更易于人类编写和理解；因此，汇编语言也被称为符号语言。

  • 汇编语言的优点是能编写高效率的程序；但是，缺点和机器语言没什么不同，汇编语言同样依赖于具体的计算机架构（面向机器），程序不具备跨平台的可移植性。

WARNING

  • ① 汇编语言，目前仍然应用于工业电子编程领域、软件的加密解密、计算机病毒分析等。
  • ② 汇编语言是编程语言的拓荒年代，它非常底层，直接和计算机硬件打交道，开发效率低，学习成本高。

2.3.3 高级语言（相当于人类的信息时代） ​

  • 高级语言是一种接近于人们使用习惯的程序设计语言。它允许程序员使用接近日常英语的指令来编写程序，程序中的符号和算式也和日常使用的数学公式差不多，接近于自然语言和数学语言，容易被人们掌握。

  • 高级语言独立于计算机硬件，有一定的通用性；计算机不能直接识别和执行用高级语言编写的程序，需要使用编译器或解释器转换为机器语言，才能被计算机识别和执行。

NOTE

  • ① 普遍使用的高级编程语言，有：C、C++、Java、Python、C#、JavaScript、Go、SQL 等。
  • ② C 语言是“面向过程”的编程语言，已经脱离了计算机硬件，可以用来设计和开发中等规模的程序。
  • ③ Java、C++、Python、C# 等都是“面向对象”的编程语言（它们在“面向过程”的基础上又增加了很多概念），可以用来设计和开发中大型规模的程序。

IMPORTANT

C 语言出现的时候，已经度过了编程语言的拓荒年代，具备了现代编程语言的特性，但是这个时候还没有出现“软件危机”，人们没有动力去开发更加高级的语言，所以也没有太复杂的编程思想；而之后出现的“面向对象”的编程思想解决了一部分在“软件危机”上的窘境。

2.3.4 总结 ​

  • 编写语言的对比，如下所示：
类别特征优点缺点示例
机器语言直接由计算机执行的二进制代码执行速度快编写困难，可读性差，与具体硬件强绑定二进制代码
汇编语言用助记符代替二进制代码的低级语言相对机器语言更易编写和理解，允许直接控制硬件资源依然需要了解硬件，不够抽象，与具体硬件或平台相关MOV，ADD 等助记符
高级语言接近人类语言，提供了更高层次的抽象易于编写和维护，可移植性好，支持多种编程范式需要通过编译器或解释器转换为机器语言，可能存在一定的性能损失C，Java， Python 等

IMPORTANT

  • ① 使用机器语言进行编程，对于程序员来说，简直就是噩梦，尤其当功能比较多，程序比较大的时候，不但编写麻烦，需要频繁查询指令手册，而且排查错误非常麻烦，要直接面对一堆二进制数据，想想都令人崩溃（上古程序员，可能真的不是“人”，而是“异类”）。此外，使用二进制指令编程，步骤非常繁琐，要考虑各种边界情况和底层问题，开发效率十分低下。
  • ② 这就倒逼程序员开发出了编程语言，提供自己的生产力，如：汇编语言、C 语言、C++ 语言、Java 语言、Go 语言等等，都是在逐步提高开发效率。至此，编程终于不再是只有极客才能做的事情，不怎么了解计算机的初学者在经过一定时间的训练后也可以编写出有模有样的程序。
  • ③ 在实际开发中，随着计算机科学的发展，现代化的高级编程语言，如：C++ 语言、Java 语言、Go 语言等，因其强大的表达能力、良好的可移植性和易用性，成为了日常软件开发的主流选择。

第三章：初识 C 语言 ​

3.1 C 语言究竟是一门怎样的编程语言？ ​

  • 对于绝大多数程序员而言，C 语言是学习编程的第一门语言，很少有不了解 C 语言的程序员。

NOTE

许多著名编程语言的创造者和计算机科学领域的大佬都有学习和使用过 C 语言，如：詹姆斯·高斯林（James Gosling，Java 之父），比雅尼·斯特劳斯特鲁普（Bjarne Stroustrup，C++ 之父），吉多·范罗苏姆（Guido van Rossum，Python 之父），林纳斯·托瓦兹（Linus Torvalds，Linux 之父）等。

  • C 语言除了能让我们了解编程的相关概念，带领我们走进编程的大门，还能让我们明白程序的运行原理，如：

    • ① 计算机的各个部件是如何协同工作的？
    • ② 程序在内存中是一种怎样的状态？
    • ③ 程序在计算机中到底是如何执行的，以及它的生命周期是什么？
    • ④ 操作系统和应用程序之间，又有着怎样的爱恨情仇？
    • ⑤ ...

  • 这些底层知识决定了我们的发展高度，也决定了我们的职业生涯。如果我们希望能在计算机行业中长远的发展，就必须学习这些相关的底层知识。

IMPORTANT

这些底层知识，包括不限于：数据结构和算法、计算机组成原理、操作系统、计算机网络、设计模式以及编译原理（了解即可）：

  • 数据结构和算法：主要研究数据的组织方式和处理方法，包括：线性表、树、图等数据结构，以及基本的算法思想和分析方法。

  • 计算机组成原理：主要研究计算机系统的硬件组成和工作原理，包括：数字电路、存储器、中央处理器等内容。

  • 操作系统：主要研究计算机系统的软件组成和工作原理，包括：进程/线程/并发（重点）、内存布局和内存管理（重点）、文件系统和磁盘 IO 等内容，以及基本的操作系统概念和设计思路。

  • 计算机网络：主要研究计算机之间的通信原理和协议，包括：网络体系结构（OSI 模型）、传输协议、网络安全等内容，以及基本的网络概念和技术。重点学习 TCP/IP 协议栈、socket 通信（三/四次握手、select、poll、epoll）、HTTPS/HTTP、长链接等内容。

  • 设计模式：是软件设计中常见问题的通用解决方案。不过，在 C 语言中通常是没有的，因为其是面向过程的编程语言，而 C++ 和 Java 等面向对象的编程语言是有设计模式的。

  • 编译原理：主要研究如何将高级编程语言转换为机器语言，有词法分析、语法分析、语义分析、中间代码生成、优化、代码生成等步骤，了解即可。

  • C 语言的概念少，词汇少，只包含了基本的编程元素，相对比较简单。对于初学者来说，学习 C 语言的时间短，成本小。

NOTE

很多人之所以觉得 C 语言难，就是因为栽倒在 C 语言的指针那边（相对比其他的现代化编程语言而言，C 语言的指针确实足够底层和麻烦，需要掌握的细节很多）；但是，一旦有所突破，学习之路就会一马平川。

3.2 C 语言的由来 ​

  • 1969 年，美国贝尔实验室的肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson）和丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）一起开发了 Unix 操作系统。Unix 最初是使用汇编语言编写的，依赖于计算机硬件。为了程序的可读性和可移植性，它们决定使用高级语言重写。但是。当时的高级语言无法满足他们的要求，肯·汤姆森就在 BCPL 语言的基础上发明了 B 语言。
  • 1972 年，丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）在 B 语言的基础上重新设计了一种新的语言，这种新语言取代了 B 语言，即 C 语言。

  • 1973 年，整个 Unix 系统都使用 C 语言重写（重构），大大增强了 Unix 在不同硬件平台的可移植性，这标志着 Unix 的初步成熟，也标志着 C 语言的初步成熟（因为 C 语言可以用于大型项目开发了）。

NOTE

C 语言最初是作为 Unix 系统的开发工具而发明的，它的初衷非常简单，就是被设计成一种非常高效的、可以操作硬件的系统级编程语言，然后帮助团队开发 Unix 操作系统。

  • 此后，这种语言快速流传，广泛用于各种操作系统和系统软件的开发，如：Unix、MS-DOS、Microsoft Windows 以及 Linux 等。

  • 1988 年，美国国家标准协会（ANSI）正式将 C 语言标准化，标志着 C 语言开始稳定和规范化。

3.3 为什么要学习 C 语言？ ​

  • ① C 语言具有可移植好、跨平台的特点：用 C 语言编写的代码可以在不同的操作系统和硬件平台上编译和运行。

NOTE

  • ① C 语言的最原始的设计目的，就是为了将 Unix 操作系统移植到其他的计算机架构上，这使得它从一开始就非常注重可移植性。
  • ② 这边所说的 C 语言的可移植性，是和汇编语言相比的；如果 C 语言和现代化的高级编程语言相比，可移植性还是很差的，如：Java 的口号是“一次编译，到处运行”，Go 的口号是“一次编译，到处执行”。
  • ② C 语言在许多领域应用广泛。
    • 操作系统：C 广泛用于开发操作系统，如：Unix、Linux 和 Windows。
    • 嵌入式系统：C 是一种用于开发嵌入式系统（如：微控制器、微处理器和其它电子设备）的流程语言。
    • 系统软件：C 用于开发设备驱动程序、编译器和汇编器等系统软件。
    • 网络：C 语言广泛用于开发网络应用程序，例如：Web 服务器、网络协议和网络驱动程序。
    • 数据库系统：C 用于开发数据库系统，例如：Oracle、MySQL 和 PostgreSQL 。
    • 游戏：由于 C 能够处理低级硬件交互，因此经常用于开发计算机游戏。
    • 人工智能：C 用于开发人工智能和机器学习的应用程序，例如：神经网络和深度学习算法。
    • 科学应用：C 用于开发科学应用程序，例如：仿真软件和数值分析工具。
    • 金融应用：C 用于开发股票市场分析和交易系统等金融应用。
  • ③ C 语言能够直接对硬件进行操作、管理内存以及和操作系统对话，这使得它是一种非常接近底层的语言，非常适合写需要和硬件交互、有极高性能要求的程序。

NOTE

  • C 语言毕竟诞生的时间非常早（20 世纪 70 年代），属于 70 后了，有点落后于现在的时代，虽然执行效率高（仅次于汇编语言），但是开发效率低。
  • 随着时间的推移，人们在 C 语言的基础上增加了面向对象的机制（软件危机），形成了一门新的编程语言，它的名字是 C++ 。
  • 但是，C++ 的特性实在是太多了（因为 C++ 兼容 C，并增加了很多自己独有的特性，可以是当今最复杂的编程语言，没有之一），于是人们在 C++ 的基础上，删减了一些非必要的特性，就形成了 Java 和 C# ，也可以认为 Java 和 C# 是 C++--。
  • 当然，近年来，Go 语言也很火，它的设计者之一就是 Unix 操作系统的的开发者肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson），Go 诞生的背景据说是肯·汤姆森（Ken Thompson）在 C++ 委员会在为其演讲 C++ 新特性的时候，觉得 C++ 新特性太多太复杂，于是就开发了 Go 语言；所以，Go 语言中有很多 C 语言的身影。
  • 其实，在 C 语言之后的许多编程语言，或多或少都参考了 C 语言；所以，编程界流传了一句话：汇编生 C ，C 生万物。
  • ④ 学习 C 语言有助于快速上手其他编程语言，如：C++（原先是 C 语言的一个扩展，在 C 语言的基础上嫁接了面向对象编程思想）、C#、Java 等，这些语言都继承或深受 C 语言的影响和启发。
  • ⑤ C 语言长盛不衰。C 语言至今，依然是最广泛使用、最流行的编程语言之一，包括很多大学将 C 语言作为计算机教学的入门语言，拥有庞大而活跃的用户社区，这意味着有许多资源和库可供开发人员使用。
  • ⑥ C 语言容易学习，适合入门。和 Java、C++、Python 等更加现代化的高级编程语言相比，C 语言涉及的概念少，附带的标准库小，整体比较简单，容易学习，非常适合初学者入门。

3.4 计算机语言排行榜 ​

  • TIOBE 是一个流行编程语言排行，每月更新。排名权重基于世界范围内工程师数量，Google、Bing、Yahoo! 、Wikipedia、Amazon、Youtube 和百度这些主流的搜索引擎，也将作为排名权重的参考指标。

  • 计算机语言走势图：

3.5 C 语言到底能做什么？ ​

3.5.1 概述 ​

  • 我们知道，这个世界上的编程语言太多太多。其中，最流行的编程语言就是 TOBIE 榜单上的前 50 名。

  • 从应用的范围上来讲，编程语言大致可以分为以下两类，如下所示：

    • ① 通用型编程语言：这些语言设计的目的是能够用于开发多种类型的应用程序，不局限于某个特定领域。它们通常拥有丰富的库和框架支持，可以应用于系统编程、应用开发、Web开发、数据分析等多个领域。
    • ② 专用型编程语言：这些语言是为了解决特定领域的问题而设计的，通常在该领域中表现出色。虽然它们可以在一定程度上用于其他领域，但其核心设计和优化是针对某个特定应用场景的。

  • 常见的专用型编程语言，如下所示：

专用型编程语言描述
SQL专门用于数据库查询和管理，尽管可以嵌入其他编程语言中，但其主要应用是数据库操作。
R主要用于统计分析和数据可视化，广泛应用于数据科学和研究领域。
MATLAB主要用于数值计算、算法开发和数据可视化，广泛应用于工程和科学领域。
VHDL/Verilog用于硬件描述和数字电路设计，主要应用于电子工程领域。
  • 常见的通用型编程语言，如下所示：
通用型编程语言描述
Python广泛应用于Web开发、数据科学、自动化脚本、人工智能等。
Java用于企业级应用、移动应用开发（Android）、Web 开发等。
C++可用于系统编程、游戏开发、嵌入式系统等多个领域。
JavaScript最初用于 Web 前端开发，现在也广泛用于服务器端（Node.js）、桌面应用开发（Electron）等。

NOTE

C 语言是一门通用型的编程语言，并没有针对某个领域进行优化。但是，C 语言也有很多常见的应用领域。

3.5.2 C 语言的常见应用领域 ​

  • C 语言的常见应用领域，如下所示：
    • ① 单片机或嵌入式开发：单片机通常是一个集成度较高的微控制器，资源有限，如：家电控制、自动化设备、传感器数据采集、智能玩具、汽车电子。嵌入式系统是一个计算机系统，嵌入在更大设备中，用来执行专门的任务。它通常包含硬件和软件两部分，具有专用性、实时性、资源受限等特点，如：消费电子（智能手机、智能手表等）、医疗设备、工业控制系统、汽车电子系统（ECU、ABS）、物联网设备等。
    • ② 上位机开发（桌面软件开发）：其实，这部分的市场已经被其它编程语言蚕食了，如：C++ 的 QT、GTK，Java 的 Swing 、JavaFx，Dart 的 Flutter ，因为 C 语言太过于底层，本身不直接支持跨平台，而且没有丰富的库和框架支持。
    • ③ 系统组件开发：
      • 基础组件，如：文件系统、进程管理、用户界面（CLI + GUI）等。
      • 核心算法，如：加密/安全算法（MD5、SHA、AES、RSA、SSL）、调度算法（进程和线程调度、内存页面置换）、LZ 压缩算法、CRC 等数据校验算法、随机数生成算法等。
      • 硬件驱动，如：声卡驱动、显卡驱动、网卡驱动、蓝牙驱动、键盘和鼠标驱动、扫描仪驱动、打印机驱动、USB 驱动等。
      • 通信协议，如：TCP/IP 协议族（UDP、DNS、路由选择）、HTTP/HTTPS 、SMTP/POP3/IMAP、FTP、NFC 等。
    • ④ 开发操作系统：这是 C 语言的初衷，它就是为开发操作系统而生的，如：UNIX 内核、Linux 内核以及 Windows 内核，主要就是使用 C 语言开发。
    • ⑤ 开发其它编程语言：
      • 有些编程语言的编译器（解释器）和标准库就使用 C 语言开发，如： Python、PHP、Rust、Perl。
      • 有些编程语言是在 C 语言的基础上进行的扩展，如： C++、Objective-C、Swift。
    • ⑥ 信号处理：C 语言在电气工程领域也有很多用途，它可以使用信号处理算法来管理微处理器、微控制器等集成电路。
    • ⑦ 音视频处理：C 语言的速度非常快，能够快速地对音频和视频数据进行处理。音频和视频数据通常比较大，需要高效的算法和数据结构来处理，而 C 语言运行速度非常快，能够及时处理这些数据。C 语言提供了丰富的底层库和工具，如：FFmpeg、OpenCV 等，这些库和工具可以方便地对音频和视频数据进行编码、解码、剪辑、处理和转换等操作。
    • ⑧ 数据库开发：数据库是软件领域的基础设施，它的性能直接影响整个应用程序的运行效率，所以必须使用一种高效的语言进行开发。使用 C 语言开发的数据库有：MySQL、SQLite、PostgreSQL 等。
    • ⑨ ...

IMPORTANT

虽然 C 语言的开发场景貌似看起来很多；但是，使用 C 语言的场景几乎就是：底层/系统开发 + 关键组件/模块的开发 + 贴近硬件的开发，这些开发场景非常关注运行效率，或者响应时间，或者硬件资源。

3.6 不学 C 语言，行吗？ ​

  • C 语言相比于其它的现代化高级编程语言而言，如：Java、Go 等，实在是太老了；如果不打算搞嵌入式开发，即便学了，一时半会也用不上。但是，几乎所有大学的计算机/软件专业都将 C 语言作为必修课，这又是为什么呢？
  • 其实，是因为 C 语言是一门基础语言，很多其它的课程都依赖 C 语言。如果你不了解 C 语言，很多课程你是理解不了的，如下所示：
    • ① 编译原理课程通常是以 C 语言为例进行讲解，因为 C 语言的编译过程相对简单、规范和透明，适合教学。
    • ② 数据结构课程通常也是使用 C 语言进行编程，因为 C 语言比较底层，能够让大家看到数据结构的各种细节。另外，数据结构是一种被频繁调用的组件，必须要追求效率，C 语言再合适不过了。
    • ③ 学习操作系统原理（内存、进程、线程、通信等）也要具备 C 语言基础，否则是学不明白的。
    • ...
  • C 语言是一门面向计算机的语言，它能帮助我们快速了解底层；而其它的高级语言（Python、Java、C# 等）是面向用户的，它能让我们快速上手，搞出点实用的工具来，比如：桌面软件、网站、APP 等。

NOTE

  • ① 借助 C 语言学习原理，相当于修炼内功；使用其它语言开发程序，相当于精通招式。
  • ② 一个既有扎实“内功”又精通“招式”的程序员，无疑能够更好地应对各种编程挑战。
  • 从整体上讲，计算机软件大概可以分为两种：
    • 一种是基础设施，如：操作系统、数据库、浏览器、云计算系统、大数据系统、编译器/编程语言、通信协议、区块链、标准库/运行库、算法实现等。
    • 一种是应用软件，如：桌面软件、APP、网站、小程序等。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 内功不扎实的话，开发一般的应用软件可能没什么问题。但是，如果想要开发高性能的软件，或者开发基础设施，那是绝对是不行的。
  • ② 万丈高楼平地起，勿在浮沙筑高台！！！

3.7 C 语言的版本选择 ​

3.7.1 概述 ​

  • C 语言是在 B 语言的基础上改进而来的，目的是为了更好地开发 Unix 操作系统。到了 1973 年，Unix 的大部分功能都被 C 语言重写，这标志着 C 语言的初步成熟，因为它可以用于大型项目了。
  • 后来，C 语言被多次改进，越来越强大，为了规范 C 语言的特性和功能，人们发布了多个 C 语言标准。

3.7.2 版本 1（K＆R C） ​

  • K&R C 指的是 C 语言的原始版本。1978 年，C 语言的发明者布莱恩·柯林（Brian Kernighan）和丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）合写了一本著名的教材《C 编程语言》（The C programming language）。

NOTE

由于 C 语言还没有成文的语法标准，这本书就成了公认标准，以两位作者的姓氏首字母作为版本简称 “K&R C”。

3.7.3 版本 2（ANSI C，又称 C89 或 C90） ​

  • 到了 80 年代，C 语言越来越流行，广泛被业界使用，从大型主机到小型微机，各个厂商群雄并起，推出了多款 C 语言的编译器。这些编译器根据行业和厂商自己的需求，进行了各种扩展，C 语言进入了春秋战国时代，逐渐演变成一个松散杂乱的大家族。
  • 为统一 C 语言版本，1989 年，美国国家标准协会（ANSI）制定了一套 C 语言标准，并于次年被国际标准化组织（ISO）通过。它被称为 “ANSI C”，也可以按照发布年份，称为 “C89 或 C90”。

NOTE

目前常用的编译器，如：MSVC（Microsoft Visual C++）、GCC、LLVM Clang 等，都能很好地支持 ANSI C 的内容。

3.7.4 版本 3（C99） ​

  • C 语言标准的第一次大型修订，发生在 1999 年，增加了许多语言特性，如：双斜杠（ // ）的注释语法，可变长度数组、灵活的数组成员、复数、内联函数和指定的初始值设定项，这个版本称为 C99，是目前最流行的 C 版本。

NOTE

这个时候的 C 语言编译器基本已经成熟，各个组织对 C99 的支持所表现出来的兴趣不同：

  • 当 GCC 和其它一些商业编译器支持 C99 的大部分特性的时候。
  • 微软和 Borland 却似乎对此不感兴趣，或者说没有足够的资源和动力来改进编译器。

最终导致不同的编译器在部分语法上存在差异。典型的例子就是：ANSI C 规定，只能用常量表示数组的长度，而 C99 取消了这个限制，数组的长度也可以用变量表示（可变长度数组）。对于 C99 的这个新改动，GCC 和 Clang 是支持的，而 MSVC 却不支持。

3.7.5 版本 4（C11） ​

  • 2011 年，标准化组织再一次对 C 语言进行修订，增加了_Generic、static_assert 和原子类型限定符，这个版本称为 C11。

NOTE

  • ① 需要强调的是，修订标准的原因并不是因为原标准不能用，而是需要跟进新的技术。
  • ② 支持此标准的主流 C 语言编译器有 GCC、LLVM Clang、Intel C++ Compile 等。

3.7.6 版本 5（C17） ​

  • C11 标准在 2017 年进行了修补，但发布是在 2018 年。新版本只是解决了 C11 的一些缺陷，没有引入任何新功能，这个版本称为 C17。

3.7.7 版本 6（C23） ​

  • 2023 年发布，计划进一步增强安全性，消除实现定义的行为，引入模块化语言概念等新特性，使 C 语言在安全和可靠性方面有重大提高。

第四章：C 语言的学习技巧 ​

4.1 如何学习 C 语言？ ​

  • 对于大部分的初学者， 学习 C 语言的目的可能是为了成为一名合格的程序员，开发出优秀的软件。但是，在学习了 C 语言的基本语法后，却发现只能在控制台（黑底白字）上玩玩，没有漂亮的用户界面以及人性化的交互。于是，开始学习数据结构、算法、数据库、操作系统，越陷越深，越来越迷茫，不知道学习 C 语言能做什么，认为学习编程很难，开始怀疑自己，直到放弃！！！
  • 其实，C 语言本身就是一门非常简单的语言，提供的实用功能不多，大部分的时候需要借助操作系统、第三方库以及以及一些硬件，如：单片机等，才能发挥它的威力！！！

IMPORTANT

  • ① 学习 C 语言仅仅是让你踏上程序员之路的第一步而已，只学习 C 语言也做不了什么。
  • ② 系统、扎实的学习 C 语言可以让你了解底层硬件、一些简单的数据结构和算法，并培养计算机思维。
  • 前文，我们提过：C 语言是一门通用性的语言，并没有针对某个领域进行优化。并且，在实际项目中，C 语言主要用于比较底层的开发，例如：
    • Windows、Linux、Unix 等操作系统的内核 90% 以上都使用 C 语言开发（Rust 语言有望未来，在操作系统开发中占据一席之地，特别是在对安全性和性能要求极高的领域）。
    • 开发硬件驱动，让硬件和操作系统连接起来，这样用户才能更有效的使用硬件。
    • 单片机和嵌入式属于软硬件的结合，是使用 C 语言最多的地方。
    • 开发系统组件或服务，用于支撑上层应用。
    • 如果对软件某个模块，例如：算法和搜索部分的效率要求较高，也可以使用 C 语言来开发。
    • ……
  • 貌似感觉 C 语言的应用还是很多的啊，那为什么感觉学习 C 语言还是做不了什么？原因除了 C 语言通常都是开发最底层的应用之外，最重要的一点就是生态。

IMPORTANT

现代化的高级编程语言的流行程度，除了和编程语言的设计是否优秀有关，最主要的原因就是生态。

  • ① 很多编程语言都自带标准库（语言本身提供的，开箱即用），如：Java、Go 等。
  • ② 很多编程语言都有自己的包管理器（用于管理第三方库）解决方案，如：Java 中的 Maven、Gradle、Go 中的 go modules ，JavaScript 的 npm 等。

遗憾的是，C 语言的标准库非常简单，只有输入输出、文件操作、日期时间、字符串处理、内存管理，对于网络编程、GUI、数据库、并发等需要大量的第三方库或操作系统的功能来扩展 C 语言的功能（Java 语言、Go 语言等其他的现代化高级编程语言，都是直接将这些常见的开发场景内置到标准库中，开箱即用，极大的降低了软件开发的难度）。C 语言的第三方库也不是很多（和其它现代化高级编程语言相比，C 语言的大多数的第三方库都是底层库，支持应用开发的库寥寥无几，只有一个 GTK 库能够开发出桌面软件，几乎没有网站开发以及 APP 开发相关的库），社区也不是很活跃（和其它现代化高级编程语言相比），更别提缺少自己的包管理器。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 换言之，在实际工作中，C 语言几乎是不用做软件、网站、APP 等这些应用层开发，其它的编程语言能够更好地完成任务，没必要非得使用 C 语言，C 语言基本都是用来做底层开发，也就是看不见摸不着的、在后台默默提供服务的那些项目，而这样的项目对初学者来说基本没有实用价值，初学者也不知道它们该怎么使用。

  • ② 初学者想要的 C 语言没有，C 语言能做的初学者用不到，就是这种矛盾，导致初学者非常迷茫。

  • ③ 有人可能会问，C 语言不是还可以用来开发单片机或者嵌入式吗？是的没错，但是这个方向是软硬件结合的，不是在我们的电脑上进行开发，而是在特殊的板子上进行开发，并且还需要学习数字电路、模拟电路、8051/ARM、RTOS、嵌入式 Linux 等方面的知识，只学 C 语言也没有用武之地。

  • ④ 如果你觉得学了 C 语言没用，那么恭喜你，你是对的，应用层的开发一般真的用不上它。

  • ⑤ 但是，没用也要学，学习 C 语言并不一定是要应用它，C 语言可以夯实你的编程基础，尤其是数据结构、算法、内存、线程、进程、通信、操作系统、编译原理等底层的计算机知识，没有 C 语言基础是学不好的。

  • ⑥ 这些底层知识并不一定能够直接应用在实际开发中，但是它们会让你有底气，会让你透彻地理解编程概念，会让你站的“低”看得远，会让你避免很多低级错误，会让你心中有“架构师”的思维。

IMPORTANT

不过，现在 C 语言社区也开始诞生了一些包管理器，如：Conan 和 vcpkg ；也有自己的项目构建工具，如：cmake 、xmake 等。

NOTE

JavaScript 的作者 Brendan Eich（布兰登·艾奇） 曾经这么说：“与其说我爱 JavaScript，不如说我恨它。它是 C 语言和 Self 语言一夜情的产物（致敬 C 语言）。十八世纪英国文学家约翰逊博士说得好："它的优秀之处并非原创，它的原创之处并不优秀。"”

4.2 项目构建工具和包管理器 ​

4.2.1 概述 ​

  • 项目构建工具和包管理器在软件开发中扮演着不同的角色，它们虽然有时会有重叠的功能，但主要关注的点是不同的。

4.2.2 项目构建工具 ​

  • 项目构建工具是用于自动化编译、测试、打包、部署等一系列任务的软件工具。它们帮助开发者简化和管理整个软件开发生命周期中的各个步骤，尤其是在构建过程中的复杂性管理上。
  • 其功能有：
    • 编译代码：自动编译源代码（如 ：.java、.c 等）为可执行文件或中间文件（如：.class 文件）。
    • 运行测试：集成单元测试、集成测试，自动运行测试用例并生成报告。
    • 打包：将编译后的代码、依赖库、资源文件等打包成可分发的格式（如：JAR、WAR、可执行文件等）。
    • 依赖管理：自动下载、更新和管理项目所需的第三方库（这部分功能有时与包管理器重叠）。
    • 部署：将打包后的应用程序自动部署到测试环境、生产环境等。
    • 任务自动化：除了基本的构建流程外，还可以自动化执行一些常见任务，如：代码检查、文档生成等。
  • 常用的项目构建工具：
    • Maven（Java）：一个流行的构建工具和依赖管理工具，广泛用于 Java 项目。
    • Gradle（Java、Kotlin、Groovy）：一个灵活的构建工具，支持声明式的构建脚本和多种语言。
    • Make（C/C++）：一个经典的构建工具，使用 Makefile 来定义构建规则和依赖关系。
    • CMake（C/C++）：一个跨平台的构建系统，帮助生成标准的构建文件，如：Makefile 或 Visual Studio 项目文件。
    • ……

4.2.3 包管理器 ​

  • 包管理器是用于自动化安装、更新、配置和管理软件包及其依赖关系的工具。它主要关注于获取和管理项目所需的第三方库或工具包，并确保它们正确地集成到项目中。
  • 其功能有：
    • 依赖管理：根据项目配置文件（如：package.json、requirements.txt）自动下载和安装项目所需的依赖包。
    • 版本控制：管理包的版本，允许开发者指定某个特定版本或版本范围，确保项目中的库版本一致性。
    • 包的发布和共享：开发者可以通过包管理器发布自己的库，并且共享给社区或组织内部的其他项目使用。
    • 环境隔离：有些包管理器提供虚拟环境功能，可以将不同项目的依赖隔离开，避免版本冲突。
    • 更新和卸载：包管理器可以自动更新依赖包到最新的兼容版本或卸载不再需要的包。
  • 常见的包管理器：
    • npm（Node.js）：用于管理 JavaScript 和 Node.js 项目的包和模块。
    • pip（Python）：用于安装和管理 Python 的软件包。
    • Cargo（Rust）：Rust 编程语言的包管理器和构建工具。
    • Yarn（JavaScript）：是 npm 的替代品，提供更快和更可靠的包管理体验。
    • Homebrew（macOS）：用于 macOS 系统下的命令行工具和库的管理。
    • ……

4.2.3 注意事项 ​

  • 对于 Java 项目中的 Maven 或 Gradle 而言，其不仅是项目构建工具也是包管理工具。

NOTE

  • ① Gradle 也支持原生项目的开发，如：C 和 C++ 。
  • ② 不过，目前而言，业界开发 C/C++ 项目时，使用最多的项目构建工具和包管理器是 Cmake 和 Conan 。

4.3 C 语言为什么没有应用层开发的库？ ​

  • C 语言是一门“古老”的语言了，它只支持面向过程编程，不支持面向对象编程和泛型编程，在中大型的应用层项目开发中，C 语言已经显得捉襟见肘了，C++、Java、Python、C#、JavaScript 等其他编程语言能够更好地胜任，为 C 语言开发应用层的库简直是费力不讨好，所以几乎没人这么做。
  • GTK 算是一个应用层的库，它使用 C 语言开发，但是为了适应市场，GTK 也提供了其它编程语言的接口，如：C++、Python 等。
  • 先不用管面向过程、面向对象、泛型这些晦涩的编程概念；简单地理解就是，C 语言支持的特性少，用起来费劲，开发效率低，而 C++、Java、Python、C#、JavaScript 等支持的特性多，用起来方便，开发效率高。
  • C 语言的优势是运行效率极高，这正是底层开发所看重的。底层开发有时候就是一个模块，或者是一个服务，规模不算大，但是对效率有严格的要求，此时用 C 语言就非常合适，所以针对底层开发的 C 语言库较多，因为它们有非常大的实用价值。

第五章：附录 ​

5.1 嵌入式领域中的 C 语言 ​

5.1.1 概述 ​

  • C 语言在 C51、STM32 和 ARM 平台上的应用场景非常广泛，涵盖了各种嵌入式系统的开发需求。

5.1.2 C51（8051 系列微控制器） ​

  • 背景：8051 是由 Intel 于 1980 年设计的一种 8 位微控制器架构。它具有指令集简单、结构紧凑的特点，广泛应用于低端嵌入式系统中。
  • 开发工具：C51 是指针对 8051 系列微控制器的 C 语言编译器，如：Keil C51。这种编译器将 C 语言代码编译为适合 8051 架构的汇编代码。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 8051 微控制器上的应用使得开发更加高效和可维护。尽管 8051 的硬件资源有限，但 C 语言仍然能够在不损失性能的前提下提供高级编程的便利。
  • 应用场景：
    • 简单的控制系统：家用电器（微波炉、洗衣机、空调）的控制板等。这些设备通常不需要复杂的运算能力，但要求可靠和稳定的控制。
    • 低功耗传感器接口：C51 微控制器常用于低功耗传感器的数据采集和传输，如：温度、湿度、压力传感器。
    • 工业自动化设备：用于简单的工业自动化控制，如：小型电机驱动、工业传感器数据处理和传输。
    • 电子玩具：许多简单的电子玩具使用 8051 系列微控制器来控制声音、LED 灯光、显示屏等。

NOTE

总结：C51 微控制器适用于资源受限、需要低成本的简单控制系统，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发！！！

5.1.3 STM32（STM32 系列微控制器） ​

  • 背景：STM32 是意法半导体（STMicroelectronics）推出的一系列基于 ARM Cortex-M 内核的 32 位微控制器。它们广泛用于需要高性能和低功耗的嵌入式应用中，如：工业控制、消费电子和物联网设备。
  • 开发工具：开发 STM32 微控制器通常使用 Keil、IAR Embedded Workbench 或 STM32CubeIDE 等开发环境。这些环境中使用的编程语言主要是 C（有时也包括 C++）。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 STM32 上的应用非常广泛，开发者可以利用它直接控制硬件寄存器，同时也能方便地使用 STM32 提供的 HAL（硬件抽象层）库或 LL（低层）库进行开发。C 语言在这个平台上不仅能实现底层控制，还能编写复杂的应用逻辑。
  • 应用场景：
    • 物联网（IoT）设备：STM32 微控制器常用于各种物联网设备，如：智能家居控制系统、环境监测设备、可穿戴设备等。这些设备通常需要低功耗和强大的处理能力，并且需要支持多种通信协议，如：Wi-Fi、Bluetooth、LoRa。
    • 消费电子：智能手表、健身追踪器、电子书阅读器、无人机等，这些设备需要具备实时处理能力、低功耗和良好的外设支持。
    • 医疗设备：STM32 微控制器被广泛应用于便携式医疗设备中，如：血糖监测仪、心率监测器、便携式超声设备等，这些设备需要精确的传感器数据采集和处理。
    • 工业自动化控制：PLC（可编程逻辑控制器）、工业机器人、伺服电机控制等，STM32 能够处理复杂的控制算法和实时任务。
    • 汽车电子：用于汽车中的传感器管理、车载信息娱乐系统、车身控制系统（车窗、电动座椅调节等）。

NOTE

总结：STM32 微控制器在物联网、消费电子、医疗设备和工业控制等领域表现出色，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发，因为 C 语言允许直接进行硬件控制并支持复杂的应用开发。

5.1.3 ARM 架构（特别是 ARM Cortex 系列） ​

  • 背景：ARM 是一种广泛使用的处理器架构，特别是在嵌入式系统中，ARM Cortex 系列处理器（如 Cortex-M、Cortex-R 和 Cortex-A）非常流行。Cortex-M 系列主要用于微控制器，Cortex-R 用于实时系统，Cortex-A 则用于高性能嵌入式系统。
  • 开发工具：针对 ARM 架构的开发，常用工具包括 ARM Keil MDK、IAR、GCC for ARM 和 ARM Development Studio。这些工具均支持使用 C 语言进行开发。
  • C 语言的作用：C 语言在 ARM 架构上的应用广泛。它被用于操作系统内核（如 FreeRTOS、Zephyr）、设备驱动、应用层逻辑等。在 ARM Cortex-M 和 Cortex-R 系列中，C 语言的高效性和低级别硬件访问能力是开发实时、低延迟系统的关键。
  • 应用场景：
    • 高级嵌入式操作系统：ARM Cortex-A 系列处理器广泛用于运行 Linux、Android 等操作系统的嵌入式设备，如：智能手机、平板电脑、智能电视和车载娱乐系统。
    • 实时系统：ARM Cortex-R 系列处理器用于实时系统，如：汽车的 ABS（防抱死制动系统）、ESC（电子稳定控制系统），以及航空电子设备，这些系统要求极低的延迟和高可靠性。
    • 高性能物联网网关：Cortex-A 系列处理器可以用来开发支持多协议、多设备管理的物联网网关，这些网关通常需要强大的计算能力和多线程处理能力。
    • 边缘计算设备：在边缘计算场景中，ARM Cortex-A 处理器用于执行本地数据处理和决策，如：视频分析、图像处理、语音识别等。
    • 智能家居设备：ARM Cortex-M 系列微控制器广泛应用于智能家居产品，如：智能灯泡、智能音箱、家庭安全系统，这些设备需要高效的处理能力和低功耗。
    • 机器人控制系统：ARM Cortex-M 和 Cortex-A 系列处理器用于机器人系统的控制和通信，如：无人机、工业机器人、服务机器人等，处理复杂的运动控制、路径规划和传感器数据融合。

NOTE

总结：ARM Cortex 系列适用于从实时系统到高级嵌入式操作系统的各类应用，支持从低功耗控制到高性能计算的多种需求，非常适合使用 C 语言来进行开发，因为 C 语言不仅用于控制硬件，还广泛应用于操作系统和应用程序的开发。

5.2 C 和 C++ 的关系 ​

  • 起源和发展：
    • C 语言：C 语言由丹尼斯·里奇（Dennis Ritchie）在 1972 年开发，最初用于开发操作系统，特别是 UNIX。它是一种结构化的编程语言，提供了对硬件的低级访问，且效率高，因此在系统编程中广泛使用。
    • C++ 语言：C++ 由比雅尼·斯特劳斯特鲁普（Bjarne Stroustrup）在 20 世纪 80 年代初开发，作为 C 语言的扩展。它引入了面向对象编程的概念，同时保留了 C 语言的高效性和底层操作能力。C++ 最初被称为 “C with Classes”（带类的 C），后来发展成一种独立的编程语言。
  • 兼容型：
    • 语法兼容：C++ 几乎完全兼容 C 语言的语法，这意味着大多数 C 代码可以在 C++ 编译器下直接编译运行。C++ 可以看作是 C 语言的超集（虽然不完全是 100% 兼容，但差异较少）。
    • 扩展性：C++ 在 C 的基础上增加了许多新特性，如：类和对象、继承、多态、模板和异常处理等。这使得 C++ 不仅适合系统编程，还可以用于开发复杂的应用程序。
  • 编程范式：
    • C 语言：主要是面向过程编程，强调的是函数调用和控制结构。
    • C++ 语言：支持多种编程范式，包括：面向过程、面向对象和泛型编程，使得开发者可以更灵活地选择适合的编程风格。
  • 性能与应用：
    • 性能：由于 C++ 包含了更多的高级特性，它的编译时间和运行时开销可能比 C 稍高。但得益于其优化机制，C++ 仍然可以实现与 C 语言相近的性能。
    • 应用场景：C 语言仍然在嵌入式系统、驱动程序开发和其他对性能要求极高的场合中占据重要地位。而 C++ 则被广泛用于游戏开发、图形处理、大型软件系统等需要复杂结构和抽象的领域。

NOTE

C++ 是 C 语言的继承者和扩展，它保留了 C 语言的优势，并引入了更多现代编程语言的特性，使得它在更广泛的应用领域中得到应用。

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

+ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/01_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/01_xdx/index.html index 394c795..d3fa284 100644 --- a/notes/01_c-basic/01_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/01_c-basic/01_xdx/index.html @@ -8,11 +8,11 @@ - + - + - + @@ -209,7 +209,11 @@ SpacesInCStyleCastParentheses: false
  • CLion 中配置保存的时候自动格式化，即：

6.5 配置 .gitignore 文件 ​

  • 需要在项目中，配置 .gitignore 文件，以便在提交代码到 Git 仓库的时候，忽略某些文件或目录，如下所示：

  • .gitignore 文件的内容，如下所示：
txt
.vscode
 .idea
 cmake-build-*
-build

6.6 演示 ​

  • 我们可以在项目中，临时创建或复制一个文件，看上述配置是否生效，即：

NOTE

如果是复制并粘贴一个文件到项目中，请点击重新加载 CMake 项目！！！

第七章：C 语言的编译过程（⭐） ​

7.1 概述 ​

  • C 程序的编译过程，如下所示：

  • 过程 ① ：编写（编辑）源代码，即：编写 C 语言源程序代码，并以文件的形式存储在磁盘中。

IMPORTANT

源程序需要以 .c 作为扩展名。

  • 过程 ② ：编译，即：将 C 语言源程序转换为目标程序（或目标文件）。如果程序没有错误，没有任何提示，就会生成一个扩展名为 .obj或 .o 的二进制文件。C 语言中的每条可执行语句经过编译之后，最终都会转换为二进制的机器指令。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 其实，编译阶段包含了预处理、编译和汇编。

  • ② 预处理是编译过程的第一个阶段。在这个阶段，预处理器处理源代码中的指令（例如：#include、#define等），主要任务包括：

    • 头文件包含：将头文件的内容插入到源文件中。例如：#include <stdio.h>会被替换为stdio.h文件的内容。

    • 宏展开：替换宏定义。例如：#define PI 3.14会将代码中的PI替换为3.14。

    • 条件编译：根据条件指令（如：#ifdef、#ifndef）有选择地编译代码。

    • 删除代码中的注释，但是不会进行语法检查。

    • 预处理完成后，生成一个扩展名为.i的中间文件。

  • ③ 编译是将预处理后的源代码转换为汇编代码的过程。在这个阶段，编译器会检查代码的语法和语义，将其转换为目标机器的汇编语言，生成一个扩展名为.s的汇编文件。

  • ④ 汇编是将汇编代码转换为机器代码（也称为目标代码或目标文件）的过程。在这个阶段，汇编器将汇编指令转换为二进制机器指令，生成一个扩展名为.o或 .obj的目标文件。

  • 过程 ③ ：链接（连接），即：将编译形成的目标文件 *.obj 或 *.o和库函数以及其他目录文件链接，形成一个统一的二进制文件 *.exe。

IMPORTANT

  • 为什么需要链接库文件？
  • 因为我们的 C 程序会使用 C 程序库中的内容，如：<stdio.h> 中的 printf() 函数，这些函数不是程序员自己写的，而是 C 程序库中提供的，因此需要链接。其实，在链接过程中，还会加入启动代码，这个启动代码（和系统相关，Linux 下主要有 crt0.c、crti.c 等，它们设置堆栈后，再调用 main() 函数）负责初始化程序运行时的环境。
  • 过程 ④ ：执行，即：有了可执行的 *.exe文件，我们就可以在控制台上执行运行此 *.exe 文件。

IMPORTANT

如果修改了源代码，还需要重新编译、链接，并生成新的 *.exe文件，再执行，方能生效。

7.2 GCC 编译器的介绍 ​

  • 编辑器，如：vim 、vscode 等，是指我们用它来编写源程序的（编辑代码），而我们写的代码语句，电脑是不懂的，我们需要把它转成电脑能懂的语句，编译器就是这样的转化工具。换言之，我们用编辑器编写程序，由编译器编译后才可以运行！
  • 编译器是将易于编写、阅读和维护的高级计算机语言翻译为计算机能解读、运行的低级机器语言的程序。
  • gcc（GNU Compiler Collection，GNU 编译器套件），是由 GNU 开发的编程语言编译器。gcc 原本作为 GNU 操作系统的官方编译器，现已被大多数类 Unix 操作系统（如：Linux、BSD、Mac OS X 等）采纳为标准的编译器，gcc 同样适用于微软的 Windows 。
  • gcc 最初用于编译 C 语言，随着项目的发展， gcc 已经成为了能够编译 C、C++、Java、Ada、fortran、Object C、Object C++、Go 语言的编译器大家族。

7.3 通过 gcc 直接生成可执行文件 ​

  • 示例：进行预处理、编译、汇编和链接
shell
gcc HelloWorld.c -o HelloWorld.exe

7.4 通过 gcc 分步编译 ​

7.3.1 概述 ​

  • 预处理命令：
shell
gcc -E 源文件.c -o 源文件.i # 通常以 .i 结尾表示这个文件是一个中间状态
  • 编译（预处理和编译）命令：
shell
gcc -S 源文件.i -o 源文件.s # 在 Linux 中，通常以 .s 结尾；在 Windows 中，通常以 .asm 结尾
  • 汇编（预处理、编译和汇编）命令：
shell
gcc -c 源文件.s -o 源文件.o # 在 Linux 中，通常以 .o 结尾；在 Windows 中，通常以 .obj 结尾
  • 链接（预处理、编译、汇编和链接）命令：
shell
gcc 源文件.o -o 源文件.exe # 在 Linux 中，通常以 .out 结尾；在 Windows 中，通常以 .exe 结尾

7.4.2 应用示例 ​

  • 示例：只进行预处理
shell
gcc -E HelloWorld.c -o HelloWorld.i

  • 示例：只进行预处理和编译
shell
gcc -S HelloWorld.i -o HelloWorld.s

  • 示例：只进行预处理、编译和汇编
shell
gcc -c HelloWorld.s -o HelloWorld.o

  • 示例：进行预处理、编译、汇编和链接
shell
gcc HelloWorld.o -o HelloWorld.exe

第八章：附录 ​

8.1 WSL2 代理问题 ​

  • 在安装和配置 WSL2 之后，可能会出现如下的提示，即：

  • 那么，只需要修改 %USERPROFILE%\.wslconfig文件，内容如下：
txt
[wsl2]
+build

6.6 演示 ​

  • 我们可以在项目中，临时创建或复制一个文件，看上述配置是否生效，即：

NOTE

如果是复制并粘贴一个文件到项目中，请点击重新加载 CMake 项目！！！

第七章：C 语言的编译过程（⭐） ​

7.1 概述 ​

  • C 程序的编译过程，如下所示：

  • 过程 ① ：编写（编辑）源代码，即：编写 C 语言源程序代码，并以文件的形式存储在磁盘中。

IMPORTANT

源程序需要以 .c 作为扩展名。

  • 过程 ② ：编译，即：将 C 语言源程序转换为目标程序（或目标文件）。如果程序没有错误，没有任何提示，就会生成一个扩展名为 .obj或 .o 的二进制文件。C 语言中的每条可执行语句经过编译之后，最终都会转换为二进制的机器指令。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 其实，编译阶段包含了预处理、编译和汇编。

  • ② 预处理是编译过程的第一个阶段。在这个阶段，预处理器处理源代码中的指令（例如：#include、#define等），主要任务包括：

    • 头文件包含：将头文件的内容插入到源文件中。例如：#include <stdio.h>会被替换为stdio.h文件的内容。

    • 宏展开：替换宏定义。例如：#define PI 3.14会将代码中的PI替换为3.14。

    • 条件编译：根据条件指令（如：#ifdef、#ifndef）有选择地编译代码。

    • 删除代码中的注释，但是不会进行语法检查。

    • 预处理完成后，生成一个扩展名为.i的中间文件。

  • ③ 编译是将预处理后的源代码转换为汇编代码的过程。在这个阶段，编译器会检查代码的语法和语义，将其转换为目标机器的汇编语言，生成一个扩展名为.s的汇编文件。

  • ④ 汇编是将汇编代码转换为机器代码（也称为目标代码或目标文件）的过程。在这个阶段，汇编器将汇编指令转换为二进制机器指令，生成一个扩展名为.o或 .obj的目标文件。

  • 过程 ③ ：链接（连接），即：将编译形成的目标文件 *.obj 或 *.o和库函数以及其他目录文件链接，形成一个统一的二进制文件 *.exe。

IMPORTANT

  • 为什么需要链接库文件？
  • 因为我们的 C 程序会使用 C 程序库中的内容，如：<stdio.h> 中的 printf() 函数，这些函数不是程序员自己写的，而是 C 程序库中提供的，因此需要链接。其实，在链接过程中，还会加入启动代码，这个启动代码（和系统相关，Linux 下主要有 crt0.c、crti.c 等，它们设置堆栈后，再调用 main() 函数）负责初始化程序运行时的环境。
  • 过程 ④ ：执行，即：有了可执行的 *.exe文件，我们就可以在控制台上执行运行此 *.exe 文件。

IMPORTANT

如果修改了源代码，还需要重新编译、链接，并生成新的 *.exe文件，再执行，方能生效。

7.2 GCC 编译器的介绍 ​

  • 编辑器，如：vim 、vscode 等，是指我们用它来编写源程序的（编辑代码），而我们写的代码语句，电脑是不懂的，我们需要把它转成电脑能懂的语句，编译器就是这样的转化工具。换言之，我们用编辑器编写程序，由编译器编译后才可以运行！
  • 编译器是将易于编写、阅读和维护的高级计算机语言翻译为计算机能解读、运行的低级机器语言的程序。
  • gcc（GNU Compiler Collection，GNU 编译器套件），是由 GNU 开发的编程语言编译器。gcc 原本作为 GNU 操作系统的官方编译器，现已被大多数类 Unix 操作系统（如：Linux、BSD、Mac OS X 等）采纳为标准的编译器，gcc 同样适用于微软的 Windows 。
  • gcc 最初用于编译 C 语言，随着项目的发展， gcc 已经成为了能够编译 C、C++、Java、Ada、fortran、Object C、Object C++、Go 语言的编译器大家族。

7.3 通过 gcc 直接生成可执行文件 ​

  • 示例：进行预处理、编译、汇编和链接
shell
gcc HelloWorld.c -o HelloWorld.exe

7.4 通过 gcc 分步编译 ​

7.3.1 概述 ​

  • 预处理命令：
shell
# 通常以 .i 结尾表示这个文件是一个中间状态
+gcc -E 源文件.c -o 源文件.i
  • 编译（预处理和编译）命令：
shell
# 在 Linux 中，通常以 .s 结尾；在 Windows 中，通常以 .asm 结尾
+gcc -S 源文件.i -o 源文件.s
  • 汇编（预处理、编译和汇编）命令：
shell
# 在 Linux 中，通常以 .o 结尾；在 Windows 中，通常以 .obj 结尾
+gcc -c 源文件.s -o 源文件.o
  • 链接（预处理、编译、汇编和链接）命令：
shell
# 在 Linux 中，通常以 .out 结尾；在 Windows 中，通常以 .exe 结尾
+gcc 源文件.o -o 源文件.exe

7.4.2 应用示例 ​

  • 示例：只进行预处理
shell
gcc -E HelloWorld.c -o HelloWorld.i

  • 示例：只进行预处理和编译
shell
gcc -S HelloWorld.i -o HelloWorld.s

  • 示例：只进行预处理、编译和汇编
shell
gcc -c HelloWorld.s -o HelloWorld.o

  • 示例：进行预处理、编译、汇编和链接
shell
gcc HelloWorld.o -o HelloWorld.exe

第八章：附录 ​

8.1 WSL2 代理问题 ​

  • 在安装和配置 WSL2 之后，可能会出现如下的提示，即：

  • 那么，只需要修改 %USERPROFILE%\.wslconfig文件，内容如下：
txt
[wsl2]
 networkingMode=mirrored
 dnsTunneling=true
 firewall=true
@@ -297,17 +301,21 @@
         endif ()
     endif ()
 endforeach ()
  • 在 CLion 中正常运行代码：

  • 在 CLion 中通过 valgrind 运行代码：

8.4 性能分析 ​

8.4.1 概述 ​

  • perf 是一个 Linux 下的性能分析工具，主要用于监控和分析系统性能。它可以帮助开发者和系统管理员了解系统中哪些部分在消耗资源、识别性能瓶颈以及分析程序的运行效率。

8.4.2 安装 ​

8.4.2.1 AlmaLinux9 ​

  • 在 WSL2 中的 AlmaLinux 安装 perf ：
shell
dnf -y install perf

8.4.2.2 Ubuntu 22.04 ​

  • 在 WSL2 中的 Ubuntu 安装 perf ：
shell
apt -y update \
-	&& apt -y install linux-tools-common linux-tools-generic linux-tools-$(uname -r)

NOTE

之所以报错的原因，在于 WSL2 中的 Ubuntu 的内核是定制化的，并非 Ubuntu 的母公司 Canonical 发布的标准内核，所以需要我们手动编译安装。

  • 查看内核版本：
shell
uname -sr

  • 设置环境变量，方便后续引用：
shell
export KERNEL_VERSION=$(uname -r | cut -d'-' -f1)

  • 安装依赖库：
shell
apt -y update && \
-	apt -y install binutils-dev debuginfod default-jdk default-jre libaio-dev \
-    libbabeltrace-dev libcap-dev libdw-dev libdwarf-dev libelf-dev libiberty-dev \
-    liblzma-dev libnuma-dev libperl-dev libpfm4-dev libslang2-dev libssl-dev \
-    libtraceevent-dev libunwind-dev libzstd-dev libzstd1 python3-setuptools python3 \
-    python3-dev systemtap-sdt-dev zlib1g-dev bc dwarves bison flex libnewt-dev libdwarf++0 \
-    libelf++0 libbfb0-dev python-dev-is-python3

  • 下载源码：
shell
git clone \
+	&& apt -y install linux-tools-common \
+	linux-tools-generic linux-tools-$(uname -r)

NOTE

之所以报错的原因，在于 WSL2 中的 Ubuntu 的内核是定制化的（微软自己维护的），并非 Ubuntu 的母公司 Canonical 发布的标准内核，所以需要我们手动编译安装。

  • 查看内核版本：
shell
uname -sr

  • 设置环境变量，方便后续引用：
shell
export KERNEL_VERSION=$(uname -r | cut -d'-' -f1)

  • 安装依赖库：
shell
apt -y update && \
+	apt -y install binutils-dev debuginfod default-jdk \
+	default-jre libaio-dev libbabeltrace-dev libcap-dev \
+	libdw-dev libdwarf-dev libelf-dev libiberty-dev \
+    liblzma-dev libnuma-dev libperl-dev libpfm4-dev \
+    libslang2-dev libssl-dev libtraceevent-dev libunwind-dev \
+    libzstd-dev libzstd1 python3-setuptools python3 \
+    python3-dev systemtap-sdt-dev zlib1g-dev bc dwarves \
+    bison flex libnewt-dev libdwarf++0 \
+    libelf++0 libbfb0-dev python-dev-is-python3

  • 下载源码：
shell
git clone \
     --depth 1 \
     --single-branch --branch=linux-msft-wsl-${KERNEL_VERSION} \
-    https://github.com/microsoft/WSL2-Linux-Kernel.git

  • 编译内核代码：
shell
cd WSL2-Linux-Kernel
shell
make -j $(nproc) KCONFIG_CONFIG=Microsoft/config-wsl

  • 编译 perf 工具：
shell
cd tools/perf
shell
make clean && make

  • 复制到 PATH 变量所指向的路径中：
shell
cp perf /usr/bin/

8.4.3 整合 ​

  • CLion 中配置 perf 的路径：

  • 在 CLion 中通过 perf 运行代码：

8.5 Win 中文乱码问题 ​

  • 前文，我们提及到，在 Win 中，如果出现中文乱码问题，就需要去语言和区别设置系统区域的编码为 UTF-8 ；但是，这样可能会造成其它的软件出现中文乱码问题，如：Xshell 等。

NOTE

  • ① 之所以，修改系统的编码为 UTF-8 会出现问题，是因为早期的 Win 系统的中文默认编码是 GBK（目前也是，Win 并没有强制第三方软件使用 UTF-8 编码） ，而 Xshell 等也使用的这些编码，一旦我们修改为 UTF-8 之后，可能会造成这些第三方软件出现中文乱码问题（第三方软件适配问题，相信将来应该都会切换为 UTF-8 编码），体验较差！！！
  • ② 在 Linux 或 MacOS 之所以不会出现中文乱码的问题，是因为这些系统默认的编码就是 UTF-8 。
  • 其实，还有一种解决方案，如下所示：

  • 测试一下，是否配置成功：

8.6 CLion 中自动导入头文件 ​

  • 在 CLion 中，最为强大的功能就是直接输入函数，然后让 IDE 帮我们自动导入头文件，包括自定义的头文件，相当实用。

NOTE

  • ① CLion 中的自动导入头文件的快捷键是 Alt + Enter 。
  • ② CLion 中的自动提取变量的类型的快捷键是 Ctrl + Alt + V 。

  • 开启自动导入头文件的步骤，如下所示：

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- + https://github.com/microsoft/WSL2-Linux-Kernel.git

  • 编译内核代码：
shell
cd WSL2-Linux-Kernel
shell
make -j $(nproc) KCONFIG_CONFIG=Microsoft/config-wsl

  • 编译 perf 工具：
shell
cd tools/perf
shell
make clean && make

  • 复制到 PATH 变量所指向的路径中：
shell
cp perf /usr/bin/

8.4.3 整合 ​

  • CLion 中配置 perf 的路径：

  • 在 CLion 中通过 perf 运行代码：

8.5 Win 中文乱码问题 ​

  • 前文，我们提及到，在 Win 中，如果出现中文乱码问题，就需要去语言和区别设置系统区域的编码为 UTF-8 ；但是，这样可能会造成其它的软件出现中文乱码问题，如：Xshell 等。

NOTE

  • ① 之所以，修改系统的编码为 UTF-8 会出现问题，是因为早期的 Win 系统的中文默认编码是 GBK（目前也是，Win 并没有强制第三方软件使用 UTF-8 编码） ，而 Xshell 等也使用的这些编码，一旦我们修改为 UTF-8 之后，可能会造成这些第三方软件出现中文乱码问题（第三方软件适配问题，相信将来应该都会切换为 UTF-8 编码），体验较差！！！
  • ② 在 Linux 或 MacOS 之所以不会出现中文乱码的问题，是因为这些系统默认的编码就是 UTF-8 。
  • 其实，还有一种解决方案，如下所示：

  • 测试一下，是否配置成功：

8.6 CLion 中自动导入头文件 ​

  • 在 CLion 中，最为强大的功能就是直接输入函数，然后让 IDE 帮我们自动导入头文件，包括自定义的头文件，相当实用。

NOTE

  • ① CLion 中的自动导入头文件的快捷键是 Alt + Enter 。
  • ② CLion 中的自动提取变量的类型的快捷键是 Ctrl + Alt + V 。

  • 开启自动导入头文件的步骤，如下所示：

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

+ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/02_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/02_xdx/index.html index 30e39ad..da75623 100644 --- a/notes/01_c-basic/02_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/01_c-basic/02_xdx/index.html @@ -8,11 +8,11 @@ - + - + - + @@ -63,12 +63,12 @@ 0000,0001,000000000001 代表 LOAD B, 1 0001,0001,000000010000 代表 STORE B, 16
  • 这样，直接使用内存地址来编写代码（机器语言）实现是太难阅读、修改和维护了；于是，我们就使用了汇编语言来编写代码，并通过编译器来将汇编语言翻译为机器语言，即：
txt
LOAD A, 16   -- 编译 -->   0000,0000,000000010000
 LOAD B, 1    -- 编译 -->   0000,0001,000000000001
-STORE B, 16  -- 编译 -->   0001,0001,000000010000
  • 但是，这样的汇编语言还是面向机器的，编程时仍然需要记住和管理大量内存地址，不具备程序的移植性；于是，我们就是使用了高级语言来编写代码，并引入了变量的概念，即：
c
int num = 10;

  • 我们使用变量名来关联内存地址，这样我们在编写代码的时候，就可以不用直接操作内存地址，极大地提高了代码的可读性和开发效率。并且，当程序运行完毕之后，程序所占用的内存还会交还给操作系统，以便其它程序使用。

  • 综上所述，高级语言编译器的作用就是：

    • ① 编写源代码时使用变量名。
    • ② 程序在经过编译器的编译之后，所有变量名被替换为具体地址。
    • ③ ……

  • 此时，我们就可以知道，变量就是内存中用于存储数据的临时空间，并且变量中的值是可以变化的。

  • 内存中空间的最小单位是字节（Bytes），即 8 个 0 或 1 ，如下所示：

txt
00011001 00100110 00100110 00100110 00100110 ...

NOTE

计算机中存储单位的换算，如下所示：

  • 1 B = 8 bit。
  • 1 KB = 1024 B。
  • 1 MB = 1024 KB。
  • 1 GB = 1024 MB。
  • 1 TB = 1024 GB 。
  • ……
  • 在内存中，每一个字节都有一个编号，这个编号我们称之为地址。一个变量至少占用 1 个字节（1 个或多个字节），我们将变量的第一个字节所占用的地址（变量的首地址），就称之为该变量的地址。CPU 就可以通过变量地址找到某个变量的值，然后拿到具体的数据进行计算了。

NOTE

变量就是保存程序运行过程中临时产生的值。

  • 其实，到这里还是有疑惑的？我们说过，一个变量至少会占用 1 个字节，如果一个变量占用了 4 个字节，而 CPU 只会通过变量的地址（首地址）获取数据，那么 CPU 是如何获取完整的数据的？答案就是通过数据类型，数据类型除了限制数据的种类，还限制了数据在内存中所占空间的大小，如上图所示：

    • ① 假设变量 a 的首地址是 01 ，变量的数据类型是 4 个字节。
    • ② 那么，CPU 就会依次，从 01 ~ 04 中获取数据。

  • 再次，剖析下变量的语法格式：

txt
数据类型 变量名 = 值;
  • 变量名的作用，如下所示：
    • ① 当我们编写代码的时候，使用变量名来关联某块内存的地址。
    • ② 当 CPU 执行的时候，会将变量名替换为具体的地址，再进行具体的操作。

CAUTION

变量名（标识符）需要符合命名规则和命名规范！！！

  • 数据类型的作用，如下所示：

    • ① 变量的数据类型决定了变量所占空间的大小。当我们在声明变量的时候写了数据数据类型，CPU 就知道从变量的首地址位置开始取多少字节。
    • ② 变量的数据类型决定了两个变量是否能够运行，以及能够做何种运算。例如：JavaScript 就没有 char 类型的变量，都是 string 类型，可以和任意数据类型的数据拼接，并转换为 string 类型；Java 中有 char 类型的变量，底层都会转换 unicode 编码，然后再计算。

  • 值的作用，如下所示：

    • ① 值就是内存中实际存储的数据。
    • ② = 是赋值操作符，就是将等号右侧的数据存储到等号左侧的变量名所代表的内存空间。

  • 那么，如下代码的含义就是：

c
// int 数据类型，4 个字节
+STORE B, 16  -- 编译 -->   0001,0001,000000010000
  • 但是，这样的汇编语言还是面向机器的，编程时仍然需要记住和管理大量内存地址，不具备程序的移植性；于是，我们就是使用了高级语言来编写代码，并引入了变量的概念，即：
c
int num = 10;

  • 我们使用变量名来关联内存地址，这样我们在编写代码的时候，就可以不用直接操作内存地址，极大地提高了代码的可读性和开发效率。并且，当程序运行完毕之后，程序所占用的内存还会交还给操作系统，以便其它程序使用。

  • 综上所述，高级语言编译器的作用就是：

    • ① 编写源代码时使用变量名。
    • ② 程序在经过编译器的编译之后，所有变量名被替换为具体地址。
    • ③ ……

  • 此时，我们就可以知道，变量就是内存中用于存储数据的临时空间，并且变量中的值是可以变化的。

  • 内存中空间的最小单位是字节（Bytes），即 8 个 0 或 1 ，如下所示：

txt
00011001 00100110 00100110 00100110 00100110 ...

NOTE

计算机中存储单位的换算，如下所示：

  • 1 B = 8 bit。
  • 1 KB = 1024 B。
  • 1 MB = 1024 KB。
  • 1 GB = 1024 MB。
  • 1 TB = 1024 GB 。
  • ……
  • 在内存中，每一个字节都有一个编号，这个编号我们称之为地址。一个变量至少占用 1 个字节（1 个或多个字节），我们将变量的第一个字节所占用的地址（变量的首地址），就称之为该变量的地址。CPU 就可以通过变量地址找到某个变量的值，然后拿到具体的数据进行计算了。

NOTE

变量就是保存程序运行过程中临时产生的值。

  • 其实，到这里还是有疑惑的？我们说过，一个变量至少会占用 1 个字节，如果一个变量占用了 4 个字节，而 CPU 只会通过变量的地址（首地址）获取数据，那么 CPU 是如何获取完整的数据的？答案就是通过数据类型，数据类型除了限制数据的种类，还限制了数据在内存中所占空间的大小，如上图所示：

    • ① 假设变量 a 的首地址是 01 ，变量的数据类型是 4 个字节。
    • ② 那么，CPU 就会依次，从 01 ~ 04 中获取数据。

  • 再次，剖析下变量的语法格式：

txt
数据类型 变量名 = 值;
  • 变量名的作用，如下所示：
    • ① 当我们编写代码的时候，使用变量名来关联某块内存的地址。
    • ② 当 CPU 执行的时候，会将变量名替换为具体的地址，再进行具体的操作。

IMPORTANT

变量名（标识符）需要符合命名规则和命名规范！！！

  • 数据类型的作用，如下所示：

    • ① 变量的数据类型决定了变量所占空间的大小。当我们在声明变量的时候写了数据数据类型，CPU 就知道从变量的首地址位置开始取多少字节。
    • ② 变量的数据类型决定了两个变量是否能够运行，以及能够做何种运算。例如：JavaScript 就没有 char 类型的变量，都是 string 类型，可以和任意数据类型的数据拼接，并转换为 string 类型；Java 中有 char 类型的变量，底层都会转换 unicode 编码，然后再计算。

  • 值的作用，如下所示：

    • ① 值就是内存中实际存储的数据。
    • ② = 是赋值操作符，就是将等号右侧的数据存储到等号左侧的变量名所代表的内存空间。

  • 那么，如下代码的含义就是：

c
// int 数据类型，4 个字节
 // num 变量名 -- 关联内存中的一块存储空间
 // = 10 将 10 存储到 num 所代表的 4 个字节的存储空间中
-int num = 10;

1.7 变量的重要操作 ​

1.7.1 变量的输出 ​

  • 在计算机中，所谓的输入和输出都是以计算机（CPU 和内存）为主体而言的，即：

NOTE

输入：从输入设备(键盘、鼠标、扫描仪)向计算机输入数据。

输出：从计算机向外部输出设备(显示器、打印机)输出数据。

  • 在 C 语言中，提供了 printf() 函数用于输出信息，其函数声明是：
c
int printf (const char *__format, ...) {
+int num = 10;

1.7 变量的重要操作 ​

1.7.1 变量的输出 ​

  • 在计算机中，所谓的输入和输出都是以计算机（CPU 和内存）为主体而言的，即：

NOTE

  • ① 输入：从输入设备(键盘、鼠标、扫描仪)向计算机输入数据。

  • ② 输出：从计算机向外部输出设备(显示器、打印机)输出数据。

  • 在 C 语言中，提供了 printf() 函数用于输出信息，其函数声明是：
c
int printf (const char *__format, ...) {
     ...
-}
  • printf 的标准含义是格式化输出文本，来源于 print formatted（格式化打印）的缩写，其语法规则，如下所示：

NOTE

  • 格式化字符串：是使用双引号括起来的字符串，里面包含了普通的字符串和格式占位符。
  • 格式占位符（格式声明符）：由 % 和格式字符组成，作用是将输出的数据转换为指定的格式后输出，这里的 %d 表示整数。
  • 输出列表：是程序要输出的一些数据，可以是常量、变量或表达式，需要和格式占位符一一对应。

  • 在计算机中，二进制、八进制、十进制以及十六进制的英文名称和缩写，如下所示：

    • 二进制（binary），缩写是 bin。
    • 八进制（octal），缩写是 oct。
    • 十进制（decimal），缩写是 dec。
    • 十六进制（Hexadecimal），缩写是 hex。

  • 其实，我们也可以在 Windows 系统中的计算器中来看到，即：

IMPORTANT

在生活中的 decimal 是小数的意思；但是，在计算机中，decimal 的完整含义是 decimal integer ，即十进制整数。

  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+}
  • printf 的标准含义是格式化输出文本，来源于 print formatted（格式化打印）的缩写，其语法规则，如下所示：

NOTE

  • ① 格式化字符串：是使用双引号括起来的字符串，里面包含了普通的字符串和格式占位符。
  • ② 格式占位符（格式声明符）：由 % 和格式字符组成，作用是将输出的数据转换为指定的格式后输出，这里的 %d 表示整数。
  • ③ 输出列表：是程序要输出的一些数据，可以是常量、变量或表达式，需要和格式占位符一一对应。

  • 在计算机中，二进制、八进制、十进制以及十六进制的英文名称和缩写，如下所示：

    • 二进制（binary），缩写是 bin。
    • 八进制（octal），缩写是 oct。
    • 十进制（decimal），缩写是 dec。
    • 十六进制（Hexadecimal），缩写是 hex。

  • 其实，我们也可以在 Windows 系统中的计算器中来看到，即：

IMPORTANT

  • ① 在生活中的 decimal 是小数的意思。
  • ② 但是，在计算机中，decimal 的完整含义是 decimal integer ，即十进制整数。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -154,7 +154,9 @@
     printf("%d × %d × %d = %d", a, b, c, result);
 
     return 0;
-}

1.8 标识符 ​

1.8.1 概述 ​

  • 在 C 语言中，变量、函数、数组名、结构体等要素命名的时候使用的字符序列，称为标识符。

NOTE

在上世纪 60 - 70 年代的时候，因为国家贫穷，人民生活不富裕等原因，家长虽然会给孩子取名为：张建国、李华强等；但是，也会取小名为二狗子、狗剩等，目的是希望孩子能健康成长（养活），像 张建国、李华强、二狗子、狗剩都是名字（标识符），伴随人的一生。

1.8.2 标识符的命名规范 ​

  • 强制规范：

    • ① 只能由小写或大写英文字母，0-9 或 _ 组成。
    • ② 不能以数字开头。
    • ③ 不可以是关键字。
    • ④ 标识符具有长度限制，不同编译器和平台会有所不同，一般限制在 63 个字符内。
    • ⑤ 严格区分大小写字母，如：Hello、hello 是不同的标识符。

  • 建议规范：

    • ① 为了提高阅读性，使用有意义的单词，见名知意，如：sum，name，max，year 等。
    • ② 使用下划线连接多个单词组成的标识符，如：max_classes_per_student 等。
    • ③ 多个单词组成的标识符，除了使用下划线连接，也可以使用小驼峰命名法，除第一个单词外，后续单词的首字母大写，如： studentId、student_name 等。
    • ④ 不要出现仅靠大小写区分不同的标识符，如：name、Name 容易混淆。
    • ⑤ 系统内部使用了一些下划线开头的标识符，如：C99 标准添加的类型 _Bool，为防止冲突，建议开发者尽量避免使用下划线开头的标识符。

  • 示例：合法（不一定建议）的标识符

txt
a、BOOK_sun、MAX_SIZE、Mouse、student23、Football、FOOTBALL、max、_add、num_1、sum_of_numbers
  • 示例：非法的标识符
txt
$zj、3sum、ab#cd、23student、Foot-baii、s.com、b＆c、j**p、book-1、tax rate、don't

1.8.3 关键字 ​

  • C 语言中的关键字是编译器预定义的保留字，它们有特定的含义和用途，用于控制程序的结构和执行。
  • C80 和 C90 （ANSI C）定义的关键字，如下所示：
类型（功能）具体关键字
数据类型关键字char、double、float、int、long、short、signed、unsigned、void
存储类说明符关键字auto、extern、register、static、typedef、volatile、const
控制语句关键字break、case、continue、default、do、else、for、goto、if、return、switch、while
结构体、联合体和枚举关键字enum、struct、union
其他关键字sizeof
  • C99 新增的关键字，如下所示：
类型（功能）具体关键字
数据类型关键字_Bool、_Complex、_Imaginary
存储类说明符关键字inline、restrict
其他关键字_Complex、 _Imaginary
  • C11 新增的关键字，如下所示：
类型（功能）具体关键字
存储类说明符关键字_Atomic
其他关键字_Alignas、 _Alignof、 _Generic、 _Noreturn、 _Static_assert、 _Thread_local

IMPORTANT

  • ① 关键字不能用作标识符（如：变量名、函数名等）。
  • ② 不要死记硬背这些关键字，在实际开发中，并不一定全部使用到；而且，在学到后面的时候，会自动记住这些关键字以及对应的含义。

第二章：常量（⭐） ​

2.1 概述 ​

  • 在程序运行过程中，不能改变的量就是常量。

NOTE

  • ① 在数学中的 π，就是一个常量，其值为 3.1415926 。
  • ② 在生活中，人类的性别只有男和女；其中，男和女也是常量。
  • ③ ...

2.2 常量的分类 ​

  • 在 C 语言中的变量的分类，如下所示：
    • ① 字面量常量。
    • ② 标识符常量：
      • #define 宏定义的标识符常量。
      • const 关键字修饰的标识符常量。
      • 枚举常量。

NOTE

  • 所谓的字面量常量，就是可以直接使用的常量，不需要声明或定义，包括：整数常量、浮点数常量以及字符常量。
  • 所谓的标识符常量，就是使用标识符来作为常量名，包括： #define 宏定义的标识符常量、const 关键字修饰的标识符常量、枚举常量。
  • 示例：字面量常量
c
#include <stdio.h>
+}

1.8 标识符 ​

1.8.1 概述 ​

  • 在 C 语言中，变量、函数、数组名、结构体等要素命名的时候使用的字符序列，称为标识符。

NOTE

  • ① 在上世纪 60 - 70 年代的时候，因为国家贫穷，人民生活不富裕等原因，家长虽然会给孩子取名为：张建国、李华强等。
  • ② 但是，也会给孩子取小名，如：二狗子、狗剩等，目的是希望孩子能健康成长（养活），像 张建国、李华强、二狗子、狗剩都是名字（标识符），伴随人的一生。

1.8.2 标识符的命名规范 ​

  • 强制规范：

    • ① 只能由小写或大写英文字母，0-9 或 _ 组成。
    • ② 不能以数字开头。
    • ③ 不可以是关键字。
    • ④ 标识符具有长度限制，不同编译器和平台会有所不同，一般限制在 63 个字符内。
    • ⑤ 严格区分大小写字母，如：Hello、hello 是不同的标识符。

  • 建议规范：

    • ① 为了提高阅读性，使用有意义的单词，见名知意，如：sum，name，max，year 等。
    • ② 使用下划线连接多个单词组成的标识符，如：max_classes_per_student 等。
    • ③ 多个单词组成的标识符，除了使用下划线连接，也可以使用小驼峰命名法，除第一个单词外，后续单词的首字母大写，如： studentId、student_name 等。
    • ④ 不要出现仅靠大小写区分不同的标识符，如：name、Name 容易混淆。
    • ⑤ 系统内部使用了一些下划线开头的标识符，如：C99 标准添加的类型 _Bool，为防止冲突，建议开发者尽量避免使用下划线开头的标识符。

  • 示例：合法（不一定建议）的标识符

txt
a、BOOK_sun、MAX_SIZE、Mouse、student23、
+Football、FOOTBALL、max、_add、num_1、sum_of_numbers
  • 示例：非法的标识符
txt
$zj、3sum、ab#cd、23student、Foot-baii、
+s.com、b＆c、j**p、book-1、tax rate、don't

1.8.3 关键字 ​

  • C 语言中的关键字是编译器预定义的保留字，它们有特定的含义和用途，用于控制程序的结构和执行。
  • C80 和 C90 （ANSI C）定义的关键字，如下所示：
类型（功能）具体关键字
数据类型关键字char、double、float、int、long、short、signed、unsigned、void
存储类说明符关键字auto、extern、register、static、typedef、volatile、const
控制语句关键字break、case、continue、default、do、else、for、goto、if、return、switch、while
结构体、联合体和枚举关键字enum、struct、union
其他关键字sizeof
  • C99 新增的关键字，如下所示：
类型（功能）具体关键字
数据类型关键字_Bool、_Complex、_Imaginary
存储类说明符关键字inline、restrict
其他关键字_Complex、 _Imaginary
  • C11 新增的关键字，如下所示：
类型（功能）具体关键字
存储类说明符关键字_Atomic
其他关键字_Alignas、 _Alignof、 _Generic、 _Noreturn、 _Static_assert、 _Thread_local

IMPORTANT

  • ① 关键字不能用作标识符（如：变量名、函数名等）。
  • ② 不要死记硬背这些关键字，在实际开发中，并不一定全部使用到；而且，在学到后面的时候，会自动记住这些关键字以及对应的含义。

第二章：常量（⭐） ​

2.1 概述 ​

  • 在程序运行过程中，不能改变的量就是常量。

NOTE

  • ① 在数学中的 π，就是一个常量，其值为 3.1415926 。
  • ② 在生活中，人类的性别只有男和女；其中，男和女也是常量。
  • ③ ...

2.2 常量的分类 ​

  • 在 C 语言中的变量的分类，如下所示：
    • ① 字面量常量。
    • ② 标识符常量：
      • #define 宏定义的标识符常量。
      • const 关键字修饰的标识符常量。
      • 枚举常量。

NOTE

  • ① 所谓的字面量常量，就是可以直接使用的常量，不需要声明或定义，包括：整数常量、浮点数常量以及字符常量。
  • ② 所谓的标识符常量，就是使用标识符来作为常量名，包括： #define 宏定义的标识符常量、const 关键字修饰的标识符常量、枚举常量。
  • 示例：字面量常量
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -174,7 +176,7 @@
     printf("字符串常量 =》%s\n", "你好");
 
     return 0;
-}

2.3 使用 #define 定义常量 ​

  • #define 来定义常量，也叫作宏定义，就是用一个标识符来表示一个常量值，如果在后面的代码中出现了该标识符，那么编译时就全部替换成指定的常量值，即用宏体替换所有宏名，简称宏替换。
  • 格式是：
c
#define 常量名 常量值

CAUTION

  • ① 其实宏定义的常量的执行时机是在预处理阶段，将所有宏常量替换完毕，才会继续编译代码。
  • ② 不要以 ; 结尾，如果有 ; ，分号也会成为常量值的一部分。
  • ③ # define 必须写在 main 函数的外面！！！
  • ④ 常量名习惯用大写字母表示，如果多个单词，使用 _ 来分隔，以便和变量区分。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+}

2.3 使用 #define 定义常量 ​

  • #define 来定义常量，也叫作宏定义，就是用一个标识符来表示一个常量值，如果在后面的代码中出现了该标识符，那么编译时就全部替换成指定的常量值，即用宏体替换所有宏名，简称宏替换。
  • 格式是：
c
#define 常量名 常量值

IMPORTANT

  • ① 其实宏定义的常量的执行时机是在预处理阶段，将所有宏常量替换完毕，才会继续编译代码。
  • ② 不要以 ; 结尾，如果有 ; ，分号也会成为常量值的一部分。
  • ③ # define 必须写在 main 函数的外面！！！
  • ④ 常量名习惯用大写字母表示，如果多个单词，使用 _ 来分隔，以便和变量区分。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 #define PI 3.1415926
 
@@ -261,7 +263,7 @@
     printf("%d 的十六进制（前缀）整数： %#X\n", num, num); // 100 的十六进制（前缀）整数： 0X64
 
     return 0;
-}

3.3 进制的运算规则 ​

3.3.1 概述 ​

  • 十进制的运算规则，如下所示：
    • 逢十进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当十（针对减法而言）。
  • 二进制的运算规则，如下所示：
    • 逢二进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当二（针对减法而言）。
  • 八进制的运算规则，如下所示：
    • 逢八进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当八（针对减法而言）。
  • 十六进制的运算规则，如下所示：
    • 逢十六进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当十六（针对减法而言）。

3.3.2 二进制的运算 ​

  • 二进制的加法：1 + 0 = 1 、1 + 1 = 10、11 + 10 = 101、111 + 111 = 1110。

  • 二进制的减法：1 - 0 = 1 、10 - 1 = 1、101 - 11 = 10、1100 - 111 = 101 。

3.3.3 八进制的运算 ​

  • 八进制的加法：3 + 4 = 7 、5 + 6 = 13、75 + 42 = 137、2427 + 567 = 3216。

  • 八进制的减法：6 - 4 = 2 、52 - 27 = 33、307 - 141 = 146、7430 - 1451 = 5757 。

3.3.4 十六进制的运算 ​

  • 十六进制的加法：6 + 7 = D 、18 + BA = D2、595 + 792 = D27、2F87 + F8A = 3F11。

  • 十六进制的减法：D - 3 = A 、52 - 2F = 23、E07 - 141 = CC6、7CA0 - 1CB1 = 5FEF 。

3.4 进制的转换 ​

3.4.1 概述 ​

  • 不同进制的转换，如下所示：

  • 在计算机中，数据是从右往左的方式排列的；其中，最右边的是低位，最左边的是高位，即：

3.4.2 二进制和十进制的转换 ​

3.4.2.1 二进制转换为十进制 ​

  • 规则：从最低位开始，将每个位上的数提取出来，乘以 2 的 （位数 - 1 ）次方，然后求和。

NOTE

  • ① 在学术界，将这种计算规则，称为位权相加法。
  • ② 八进制转换为十进制、十六进制转换为十进制和二进制转换为十进制的算法相同！！！
  • 示例：十进制转十进制

  • 示例：二进制转十进制

3.4.2.2 十进制转换二进制 ​

  • 规则：将该数不断除以 2 ，直到商为 0 为止，然后将每步得到的余数倒过来，就是对应的二进制。

NOTE

  • ① 在学术界，将这种计算规则，称为短除法或连续除2取余法。
  • ② 很好理解，只有不断地除以 2 ，就能保证最大的数字不超过 2 ，这不就是二进制（只能有 0 或 1）吗？
  • ③ 八进制转换为二进制、十六进制转换为二进制和十进制转换为二进制的算法相同！！！
  • 示例：十进制转十进制

  • 示例：十进制转二进制

3.4.3 二进制转八进制 ​

  • 规则：从右向左，每 3 位二进制就是一个八进制，不足补 0（分组转换法）。

  • 示例：011 101 001 -> 351

3.4.4 二进制转十六进制 ​

  • 规则：从右向左，每 4 位二进制就是一个十六进制，不足补 0（分组转换法）。

  • 示例：1110 1001 -> 0xE9

3.5 原码、反码和补码 ​

3.5.1 概述 ​

  • 机器数：一个数在计算机的存储形式是二进制，我们称这些二进制数为机器数。机器数可以是有符号的，用机器数的最高位来存放符号位，0 表示正数，1 表示负数。

IMPORTANT

这里讨论的适用于有符号位的整数，如：int 等；而不适用于无符号位的整数，即：unsinged int 等。

  • 真值（数据位）：因为机器数带有符号位，所以机器数的形式值不等于其真实表示的值（真值），以机器数 1000 0001 为例，其真正表示的值（首位是符号位）为 -1，而形式值却是 129 ，因此将带有符号位的机器数的真正表示的值称为机器数的真值。

IMPORTANT

这里讨论的适用于有符号位的整数，如：int 等；而不适用于无符号位的整数，即：unsinged int 等。

3.5.2 原码 ​

  • 原码的表示与机器数真值表示的一样，即用第一位表示符号，其余位表示数值。
  • 规则：
    • 正数的原码是它本身对应的二进制数，符号位是 0 。
    • 负数的原码是它本身绝对值对应的二进制数，但是符号位是 1 。
  • +1 的原码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）
+10000 0000 0000 0001
  • -1 的原码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）
-11000 0000 0000 0001

IMPORTANT

总结：

  • ① 按照原码的规则，会出现 +0 和 -0 的情况，即：0000 0000 0000 0001（+0）、1000 0000 0000 0001（-0），显然不符合实际情况。
  • ② 所以，计算机底层虽然存储和计算的都是二进数，但显然不是原码。

3.5.3 反码 ​

  • 规则：

    • 正数的反码和它的原码相同。
    • 负数的反码是在其原码的基础上，符号位不变，其余各位取反。

  • +1 的反码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：

十进制数原码（16位二进制数）反码（16位二进制数）
+10000 0000 0000 00010000 0000 0000 0001
  • -1 的反码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）反码（16位二进制数）
-11000 0000 0000 00011111 1111 1111 1110

IMPORTANT

总结：

  • ① 按照反码的规则，如果是 +0，对应的原码是 0000 0000 0000 0000；那么，其反码还是 0000 0000 0000 0000；如果是 -0，对应的原码是 1000 0000 0000 0000，其反码是 1111 1111 1111 1111，显然不符合实际情况。
  • ② 所以，计算机底层虽然存储和计算的都是二进数，但显然不是反码。

3.5.4 补码 ​

  • 规则：

    • 正数的补码和它的原码相同。
    • 负数的补码是在其反码的基础上 + 1 。

  • +1 的补码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：

十进制数原码（16位二进制数）反码（16位二进制数）补码（16位二进制数）
+10000 0000 0000 00010000 0000 0000 00010000 0000 0000 0001
  • -1 的补码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）反码（16位二进制数）补码（16位二进制数）
-11000 0000 0000 00011111 1111 1111 11101111 1111 1111 1111
  • 如果 0 ，按照 +0 的情况进行处理，如下所示：

  • 如果 0 ，按照 -0 的情况进行处理，如下所示：

  • +1 和 -1 的原码和补码的转换过程，如下所示：

IMPORTANT

总结：

  • ① 补码表示法解决了原码和反码存在的两种零（+0 和 -0）的问题，即：在补码表示法中，只有一个零，即 0000 0000。
  • ②补码使得加法运算和减法运算可以统一处理，通过将减法运算转换为加法运算，可以简化硬件设计，提高了运算效率。
  • ③ 计算机底层存储和计算的都是二进数的补码。换言之，当读取整数的时候，需要采用逆向的转换，即：将补码转换为原码。正数的原码、反码、补码都是一样的，三码合一。负数的补码转换为原码的方法就是先减去 1 ，得到反码，再按位取反，得到原码（符号位是不能借的）。

3.5.5 总结 ​

  • ① 计算机底层存储和计算的都是二进数的补码。换言之，当读取整数的时候，需要采用逆向的转换，即：将补码转换为原码。
  • ② 正数的原码、反码和补码都是一样的，三码合一。
  • ③ 负数的反码是在其原码的基础上，按位取反（0 变 1 ，1 变 0 ），符号位不变；负数的补码是其反码 + 1 。
  • ④ 0 的补码是 0 。
  • ⑤ 负数的补码转换为原码的方法就是先减去 1 ，得到反码，再按位取反，得到原码。

3.6 计算机底层为什么使用补码？ ​

  • 加法和减法是计算机中最基本的运算，计算机时时刻刻都离不开它们，所以它们由硬件直接支持。为了提高加法和减法的运行效率，硬件电路必须设计得尽量简单。

  • 对于有符号位的数字来说，内存需要区分符号位和数值位：对于人类来说，很容易识别（最高位是 0 还是 1）；但是，对于计算机来说，需要设计专门的电路，这无疑增加了硬件的复杂性，增加了计算时间。如果能将符号位和数值位等同起来，让它们一起参与运算，不再加以区分，这样硬件电路就可以变得非常简单。

  • 此外，加法和减法也可以合并为一种运算，即：加法运算。换言之，减去一个数就相当于加上这个数的相反数，如：5 - 3 相当于 5 +（-3），10 -（-9）相当于 10 + 9 。

  • 如果能够实现上述的两个目标，那么只需要设计一种简单的、不用区分符号位和数值位的加法电路，就能同时实现加法运算和减法运算，而且非常高效。其实，这两个目标已经实现了，真正的计算机的硬件电路就是这样设计的。

  • 但是，简化硬件电路是有代价的，这个代价就是有符号数在存储和读取的时候都要继续转换。这也是对于有符号数的运算来说，计算机底层为什么使用补码的原因所在。

3.7 补码到底是如何简化硬件电路的？ ​

  • 假设 6 和 18 都是 short 类型，现在我们要计算 6 - 18 的结果，根据运算规则，它等价于 6 +（-18）。如果按照采用原码来计算，那么运算过程是这样的，如下所示：

NOTE

直接使用原码表示整数，让符号位也参与运算，那么对于减法来说，结果显然是不正确的。

  • 于是，人们开始继续探索，不断试错，终于设计出了反码，如下所示：

NOTE

直接使用反码表示整数，让符号位也参与运算，对于 6 +（-18）来说，结果貌似正确。

  • 如果我们将被减数和减数对调一下，即：计算 18 - 6 的结果，也就是 18 +（-6）的结果，继续采用反码来进行运算，如下所示：

NOTE

  • ① 6 - 18，即：6+（-18），如果采用反码计算，结果是正确的；但是，18 - 6，即：18 +（-6），如果采用反码计算，结果相差 1 。
  • ② 可以推断：如果按照反码来计算，小数 - 大数，结果正确；而大数 - 小数，结果相差 1 。

  • 对于这个相差的 1 必须进行纠正，但是又不能影响小数-大数的结果。于是，人们又绞尽脑汁设计出了补码，给反码打了一个“补丁”，终于把相差的 1 给纠正过来了。那么，6 - 18 按照补码的运算过程，如下所示：

  • 那么，18 - 6 按照补码的运算过程，如下所示：

IMPORTANT

总结：采用补码的形式正好将相差的 1纠正过来，也没有影响到小数减大数，这个“补丁”非常巧妙。

  • ① 小数减去大数，结果为负，之前（负数从反码转换为补码需要 +1）加上的 1 ，后来（负数从补码转换为反码要 -1）还需要减去，正好抵消掉，所以不会受到影响。
  • ② 大数减去小数，结果为正，之前（负数从反码转换为补码需要 +1）加上的 1 ，后来（正数的补码和反码相同，从补码转换为反码不用 -1）就没有再减去，不能抵消掉，这就相当于给计算结果多加了一个 1。

补码这种天才般的设计，一举达成了之前加法运算和减法运算提到的两个目标，简化了硬件电路。

3.8 问题抛出 ​

  • 在 C 语言中，对于有符号位的整数，是使用 0 作为正数，1 作为负数，来表示符号位，并使用数据位来表示的是数据的真值，如下所示：
c
int a = 10;
+}

3.3 进制的运算规则 ​

3.3.1 概述 ​

  • 十进制的运算规则，如下所示：
    • 逢十进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当十（针对减法而言）。
  • 二进制的运算规则，如下所示：
    • 逢二进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当二（针对减法而言）。
  • 八进制的运算规则，如下所示：
    • 逢八进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当八（针对减法而言）。
  • 十六进制的运算规则，如下所示：
    • 逢十六进一（针对加法而言）。
    • 借一当十六（针对减法而言）。

3.3.2 二进制的运算 ​

  • 二进制的加法：1 + 0 = 1 、1 + 1 = 10、11 + 10 = 101、111 + 111 = 1110。

  • 二进制的减法：1 - 0 = 1 、10 - 1 = 1、101 - 11 = 10、1100 - 111 = 101 。

3.3.3 八进制的运算 ​

  • 八进制的加法：3 + 4 = 7 、5 + 6 = 13、75 + 42 = 137、2427 + 567 = 3216。

  • 八进制的减法：6 - 4 = 2 、52 - 27 = 33、307 - 141 = 146、7430 - 1451 = 5757 。

3.3.4 十六进制的运算 ​

  • 十六进制的加法：6 + 7 = D 、18 + BA = D2、595 + 792 = D27、2F87 + F8A = 3F11。

  • 十六进制的减法：D - 3 = A 、52 - 2F = 23、E07 - 141 = CC6、7CA0 - 1CB1 = 5FEF 。

3.4 进制的转换 ​

3.4.1 概述 ​

  • 不同进制的转换，如下所示：

  • 在计算机中，数据是从右往左的方式排列的；其中，最右边的是低位，最左边的是高位，即：

3.4.2 二进制和十进制的转换 ​

3.4.2.1 二进制转换为十进制 ​

  • 规则：从最低位开始，将每个位上的数提取出来，乘以 2 的 （位数 - 1 ）次方，然后求和。

NOTE

  • ① 在学术界，将这种计算规则，称为位权相加法。
  • ② 八进制转换为十进制、十六进制转换为十进制和二进制转换为十进制的算法相同！！！
  • 示例：十进制转十进制

  • 示例：二进制转十进制

3.4.2.2 十进制转换二进制 ​

  • 规则：将该数不断除以 2 ，直到商为 0 为止，然后将每步得到的余数倒过来，就是对应的二进制。

NOTE

  • ① 在学术界，将这种计算规则，称为短除法或连续除2取余法。
  • ② 很好理解，只有不断地除以 2 ，就能保证最大的数字不超过 2 ，这不就是二进制（只能有 0 或 1）吗？
  • ③ 八进制转换为二进制、十六进制转换为二进制和十进制转换为二进制的算法相同！！！
  • 示例：十进制转十进制

  • 示例：十进制转二进制

3.4.3 二进制转八进制 ​

  • 规则：从右向左，每 3 位二进制就是一个八进制，不足补 0（分组转换法）。

  • 示例：011 101 001 -> 351

3.4.4 二进制转十六进制 ​

  • 规则：从右向左，每 4 位二进制就是一个十六进制，不足补 0（分组转换法）。

  • 示例：1110 1001 -> 0xE9

3.5 原码、反码和补码 ​

3.5.1 概述 ​

  • 机器数：一个数在计算机的存储形式是二进制，我们称这些二进制数为机器数。机器数可以是有符号的，用机器数的最高位来存放符号位，0 表示正数，1 表示负数。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 这里讨论的适用于有符号位的整数，如：int 等。
  • ② 这里讨论的不适用于无符号位的整数，即：unsinged int 等。

  • 真值（数据位）：因为机器数带有符号位，所以机器数的形式值不等于其真实表示的值（真值），以机器数 1000 0001 为例，其真正表示的值（首位是符号位）为 -1，而形式值却是 129 ，因此将带有符号位的机器数的真正表示的值称为机器数的真值。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 这里讨论的适用于有符号位的整数，如：int 等。
  • ② 这里讨论的不适用于无符号位的整数，即：unsinged int 等。

3.5.2 原码 ​

  • 原码的表示与机器数真值表示的一样，即用第一位表示符号，其余位表示数值。
  • 规则：
    • 正数的原码是它本身对应的二进制数，符号位是 0 。
    • 负数的原码是它本身绝对值对应的二进制数，但是符号位是 1 。
  • +1 的原码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）
+10000 0000 0000 0001
  • -1 的原码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）
-11000 0000 0000 0001

IMPORTANT

  • ① 按照原码的规则，会出现 +0 和 -0 的情况，即：0000 0000 0000 0001（+0）、1000 0000 0000 0001（-0），显然不符合实际情况。
  • ② 所以，计算机底层虽然存储和计算的都是二进数，但显然不是原码。

3.5.3 反码 ​

  • 规则：

    • 正数的反码和它的原码相同。
    • 负数的反码是在其原码的基础上，符号位不变，其余各位取反。

  • +1 的反码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：

十进制数原码（16位二进制数）反码（16位二进制数）
+10000 0000 0000 00010000 0000 0000 0001
  • -1 的反码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）反码（16位二进制数）
-11000 0000 0000 00011111 1111 1111 1110

IMPORTANT

  • ① 按照反码的规则，如果是 +0，对应的原码是 0000 0000 0000 0000；那么，其反码还是 0000 0000 0000 0000；如果是 -0，对应的原码是 1000 0000 0000 0000，其反码是 1111 1111 1111 1111，显然不符合实际情况。
  • ② 所以，计算机底层虽然存储和计算的都是二进数，但显然不是反码。

3.5.4 补码 ​

  • 规则：

    • 正数的补码和它的原码相同。
    • 负数的补码是在其反码的基础上 + 1 。

  • +1 的补码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：

十进制数原码（16位二进制数）反码（16位二进制数）补码（16位二进制数）
+10000 0000 0000 00010000 0000 0000 00010000 0000 0000 0001
  • -1 的补码，使用 16 位二进数来表示，就是：
十进制数原码（16位二进制数）反码（16位二进制数）补码（16位二进制数）
-11000 0000 0000 00011111 1111 1111 11101111 1111 1111 1111
  • 如果 0 ，按照 +0 的情况进行处理，如下所示：

  • 如果 0 ，按照 -0 的情况进行处理，如下所示：

  • +1 和 -1 的原码和补码的转换过程，如下所示：

IMPORTANT

  • ① 补码表示法解决了原码和反码存在的两种零（+0 和 -0）的问题，即：在补码表示法中，只有一个零，即 0000 0000。
  • ②补码使得加法运算和减法运算可以统一处理，通过将减法运算转换为加法运算，可以简化硬件设计，提高了运算效率。
  • ③ 计算机底层存储和计算的都是二进数的补码。换言之，当读取整数的时候，需要采用逆向的转换，即：将补码转换为原码。正数的原码、反码、补码都是一样的，三码合一。负数的补码转换为原码的方法就是先减去 1 ，得到反码，再按位取反，得到原码（符号位是不能借位的）。

3.5.5 总结 ​

  • ① 计算机底层存储和计算的都是二进数的补码。换言之，当读取整数的时候，需要采用逆向的转换，即：将补码转换为原码。
  • ② 正数的原码、反码和补码都是一样的，三码合一。
  • ③ 负数的反码是在其原码的基础上，按位取反（0 变 1 ，1 变 0 ），符号位不变；负数的补码是其反码 + 1 。
  • ④ 0 的补码是 0 。
  • ⑤ 负数的补码转换为原码的方法就是先减去 1 ，得到反码，再按位取反，得到原码（符号位是不能借位的）。

3.6 计算机底层为什么使用补码？ ​

  • 加法和减法是计算机中最基本的运算，计算机时时刻刻都离不开它们，所以它们由硬件直接支持。为了提高加法和减法的运行效率，硬件电路必须设计得尽量简单。

  • 对于有符号位的数字来说，内存需要区分符号位和数值位：对于人类来说，很容易识别（最高位是 0 还是 1）；但是，对于计算机来说，需要设计专门的电路，这无疑增加了硬件的复杂性，增加了计算时间。如果能将符号位和数值位等同起来，让它们一起参与运算，不再加以区分，这样硬件电路就可以变得非常简单。

  • 此外，加法和减法也可以合并为一种运算，即：加法运算。换言之，减去一个数就相当于加上这个数的相反数，如：5 - 3 相当于 5 +（-3），10 -（-9）相当于 10 + 9 。

  • 如果能够实现上述的两个目标，那么只需要设计一种简单的、不用区分符号位和数值位的加法电路，就能同时实现加法运算和减法运算，而且非常高效。其实，这两个目标已经实现了，真正的计算机的硬件电路就是这样设计的。

  • 但是，简化硬件电路是有代价的，这个代价就是有符号数在存储和读取的时候都要继续转换。这也是对于有符号数的运算来说，计算机底层为什么使用补码的原因所在。

3.7 补码到底是如何简化硬件电路的？ ​

  • 假设 6 和 18 都是 short 类型，现在我们要计算 6 - 18 的结果，根据运算规则，它等价于 6 +（-18）。如果按照采用原码来计算，那么运算过程是这样的，如下所示：

NOTE

直接使用原码表示整数，让符号位也参与运算，那么对于减法来说，结果显然是不正确的。

  • 于是，人们开始继续探索，不断试错，终于设计出了反码，如下所示：

NOTE

直接使用反码表示整数，让符号位也参与运算，对于 6 +（-18）来说，结果貌似正确。

  • 如果我们将被减数和减数对调一下，即：计算 18 - 6 的结果，也就是 18 +（-6）的结果，继续采用反码来进行运算，如下所示：

NOTE

  • ① 6 - 18，即：6+（-18），如果采用反码计算，结果是正确的；但是，18 - 6，即：18 +（-6），如果采用反码计算，结果相差 1 。
  • ② 可以推断：如果按照反码来计算，小数 - 大数，结果正确；而大数 - 小数，结果相差 1 。

  • 对于这个相差的 1 必须进行纠正，但是又不能影响小数-大数的结果。于是，人们又绞尽脑汁设计出了补码，给反码打了一个“补丁”，终于把相差的 1 给纠正过来了。那么，6 - 18 按照补码的运算过程，如下所示：

  • 那么，18 - 6 按照补码的运算过程，如下所示：

IMPORTANT

总结：采用补码的形式正好将相差的 1纠正过来，也没有影响到小数减大数，这个“补丁”非常巧妙。

  • ① 小数减去大数，结果为负，之前（负数从反码转换为补码需要 +1）加上的 1 ，后来（负数从补码转换为反码要 -1）还需要减去，正好抵消掉，所以不会受到影响。
  • ② 大数减去小数，结果为正，之前（负数从反码转换为补码需要 +1）加上的 1 ，后来（正数的补码和反码相同，从补码转换为反码不用 -1）就没有再减去，不能抵消掉，这就相当于给计算结果多加了一个 1。

补码这种天才般的设计，一举达成了之前加法运算和减法运算提到的两个目标，简化了硬件电路。

3.8 问题抛出 ​

  • 在 C 语言中，对于有符号位的整数，是使用 0 作为正数，1 作为负数，来表示符号位，并使用数据位来表示的是数据的真值，如下所示：
c
int a = 10;
 int b = -10;

  • 但是，对于无符号位的整数而言，是没有符号位和数据位，即：没有原码、反码、补码的概念。无符号位的整数的数值都是直接使用二进制来表示的（也可以理解为，对于无符号位的整数，计算机底层存储的就是其原码），如下所示：
c
unsigned int a = 10;
 unsigned int b = -10;

  • 这就是导致了一个结果就是：如果我定义一个有符号的负数，却让其输出无符号，必然造成结果不对，如下所示：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
@@ -289,8 +291,8 @@
     printf("b=%u\n", num);            // b=4294967286
 
     return 0;
-}
  • 其实，C 语言的底层逻辑很简单，C 语言压根不关心你定义的是有符号数还是无符号数，它只关心内存（如果定义的是有符号数，那就按照有符号数的规则来存储；如果定义的是无符号数，那就按照无符号数的规则来存储）。换言之，有符号数可以按照无符号数的规则来输出，无符号数也可以按照有符号数的规则来输出，至于输出结果对不对，那是程序员的事情，和 C 语言没有任何关系。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 实际开发中，printf 函数中的常量、变量或表达式，需要和格式占位符一一对应；否则，将会出现数据错误的现象。
  • ② 正因为上述的原因，很多现代化的编程语言，如：Java 等，直接取消了无符号的概念。但是，很多数据库是使用 C 语言开发的，如：MySQL 等，就提供了创建数据表的字段为无符号类型的功能，即：UNSIGNED（正整数） ，不要感觉困惑！！！
  • ③ 对于 1000 0000 …… 0000 0000 这个特殊的补码，无法按照上述的方法转换为原码，所以计算机直接规定这个补码对应的值就是 -2³¹，至于为什么，下节我们会详细分析。

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- +}
  • 其实，C 语言的底层逻辑很简单，C 语言压根不关心你定义的是有符号数还是无符号数，它只关心内存（如果定义的是有符号数，那就按照有符号数的规则来存储；如果定义的是无符号数，那就按照无符号数的规则来存储）。换言之，有符号数可以按照无符号数的规则来输出，无符号数也可以按照有符号数的规则来输出，至于输出结果对不对，那是程序员的事情，和 C 语言没有任何关系。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 实际开发中，printf 函数中的常量、变量或表达式，需要和格式占位符一一对应；否则，将会出现数据错误的现象。
  • ② 正因为上述的原因，很多现代化的编程语言，如：Java 等，直接取消了无符号的概念。但是，很多数据库是使用 C 语言开发的，如：MySQL 等，就提供了创建数据表的字段为无符号类型的功能，即：UNSIGNED（正整数） ，不要感觉困惑！！！
  • ③ 对于 1000 0000 …… 0000 0000 这个特殊的补码，无法按照上述的方法转换为原码，所以计算机直接规定这个补码对应的值就是 -2³¹，至于为什么，下节我们会详细分析。

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

+ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/03_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/03_xdx/index.html index 833f4cc..0603441 100644 --- a/notes/01_c-basic/03_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/01_c-basic/03_xdx/index.html @@ -8,11 +8,11 @@ - + - + - + @@ -186,7 +186,7 @@ printf("long long 类型的范围是[%lld,%lld]\n", LLONG_MIN,LLONG_MAX); // [-9223372036854775808,9223372036854775807] return 0; -}

1.2.6 字面量后缀 ​

  • 字面量是源代码中一个固定值的表示方法，用于直接表示数据，即：
c
int num1 = 100; // 100 就是字面量
c
long num2 = 100L; // 100L 就是字面量
c
long long num3 = 100LL; // 100LL 就是字面量

NOTE

  • ① 默认情况下的，整数字面量的类型是 int 类型。
  • ② 如果需要表示 long 类型的字面量，需要添加后缀 l 或 L ，建议 L。
  • ③ 如果需要表示 long long类型的字面量，需要添加后缀 ll 或 LL，建议 LL 。
  • ④ 如果需要表示无符号整数类型的字面量，需要添加 u 或 U，建议 U 。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+}

1.2.6 字面量后缀 ​

  • 字面量是源代码中一个固定值的表示方法，用于直接表示数据，即：
c
int num1 = 100; // 100 就是字面量
c
long num2 = 100L; // 100L 就是字面量
c
long long num3 = 100LL; // 100LL 就是字面量

NOTE

  • ① 默认情况下的，整数字面量的类型是 int 类型。
  • ② 如果需要表示 long 类型的字面量，需要添加后缀 l 或 L ，建议 L。
  • ③ 如果需要表示 long long 类型的字面量，需要添加后缀 ll 或 LL，建议 LL 。
  • ④ 如果需要表示无符号整数类型的字面量，需要添加 u 或 U，建议 U 。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -251,13 +251,13 @@
     printf("%zu \n", s); // 4
 
     return 0;
-}

1.3 数值溢出 ​

1.3.1 概述 ​

  • 在生活中，如果一个容器的容量是固定的，我们不停的向其中注入水，那么当容器中充满水之后，继续注入，就会溢出，如下所示：

  • 在程序中也是一样的，各种整数类型在内存中占用的存储单元是不同的，如：short 在内存中占用 2 个字节的存储单元，int 在内存中占用 4 个字节的存储单元。这也就意味着，各种整数类型只能存储有限的数值，当数值过大或多小的时候，超出的部分就会被直接截掉，那么数值就不能正确的存储，我们就将这种现象就称为溢出（overflow）。

NOTE

  • 如果这个数目前是最大值，再进行加法计算，数据就会超过该类型能够表示的最大值，叫做上溢出（如果最大值 + 1 会“绕回”到最小值）。
  • 如果这个数目前是最小值，再进行减法计算，数据就会超过该类型能够表示的最小值， 叫做下溢出（如果最小值 - 1 会“绕回”到最大值）。

在 C 语言中，程序产生数值溢出的时候，并不会引起错误而自动停止，是因为计算机直接按照二进制补码的运算规则进行处理；但是，这可能会导致不可预料的后果。因此，编程时要特别注意避免数值溢出，特别是在涉及大数或小数的运算时。

1.3.2 无符号数的取值范围 ​

  • 在 C 语言中，无符号数（unsigned 类型）的取值范围（最大值和最小值）的计算是很容易的，即：将内存中的所有位，设置为 0 就是最小值，设置为 1 就是最大值。

IMPORTANT

在 C 语言中，无符号整数，最高位不是符号位，它是数值的一部分。

  • 以 unsigned char 类型为例，它在内存中占用的存储单元是 1 个字节，即 8 位。如果所有位都设置为 0 ，它的最小值就是 0 ；如果所有位设置为 1 ，它的最大值就是 2⁸ - 1 = 255 ，如下所示：

  • 那么，unsigned char 的最大值是如何计算出来的？最简单的方法就是这样的，如下所示：
txt
  1 × 2⁰ + 1 × 2¹ + 1 × 2² + 1 × 2³ + 1 × 2⁴ + 1 × 2⁵ + 1 × 2⁶ + 1 × 2⁷ 
+}

1.3 数值溢出 ​

1.3.1 概述 ​

  • 在生活中，如果一个容器的容量是固定的，我们不停的向其中注入水，那么当容器中充满水之后，继续注入，就会溢出，如下所示：

  • 在程序中也是一样的，各种整数类型在内存中占用的存储单元是不同的，如：short 在内存中占用 2 个字节的存储单元，int 在内存中占用 4 个字节的存储单元。这也就意味着，各种整数类型只能存储有限的数值，当数值过大或多小的时候，超出的部分就会被直接截掉，那么数值就不能正确的存储，我们就将这种现象就称为溢出（overflow）。

NOTE

  • 如果这个数目前是最大值，再进行加法计算，数据就会超过该类型能够表示的最大值，叫做上溢出（如果最大值 + 1 会“绕回”到最小值）。
  • 如果这个数目前是最小值，再进行减法计算，数据就会超过该类型能够表示的最小值， 叫做下溢出（如果最小值 - 1 会“绕回”到最大值）。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 在 C 语言中，程序产生数值溢出的时候，并不会引发错误而使程序自动停止，是因为计算机底层直接按照二进制补码的运算规则进行处理的（很多编程语言也是这样处理的，如：Java 等）。
  • ② 但是，这可能会导致不可预料的后果，如：1996 年的亚利安5号运载火箭爆炸、2004 年的 Comair 航空公司航班停飞事故。
  • ③ 在实际开发中，编程时要特别注意，以避免数值溢出问题，特别是在涉及大数或小数的运算（特指整数）。

1.3.2 无符号数的取值范围 ​

  • 在 C 语言中，无符号数（unsigned 类型）的取值范围（最大值和最小值）的计算是很容易的，即：将内存中的所有位，设置为 0 就是最小值，设置为 1 就是最大值。

IMPORTANT

在 C 语言中，无符号整数，最高位不是符号位，它是数值的一部分。

  • 以 unsigned char 类型为例，它在内存中占用的存储单元是 1 个字节，即 8 位。如果所有位都设置为 0 ，它的最小值就是 0 ；如果所有位设置为 1 ，它的最大值就是 2⁸ - 1 = 255 ，如下所示：

  • 那么，unsigned char 的最大值是如何计算出来的？最简单的方法就是这样的，如下所示：
txt
  1 × 2⁰ + 1 × 2¹ + 1 × 2² + 1 × 2³ + 1 × 2⁴ + 1 × 2⁵ + 1 × 2⁶ + 1 × 2⁷ 
 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 128 
 = 255
  • 但是，这种计算方法虽然有效，但是非常麻烦，如果是 8 个字节的 long ，那么计算就非常麻烦了（可能要计算半天）。当然，我们也知道，这就是等比数列（高中知识），等比数列的公式，如下所示：

Sn=a1×1−rn1−r

  • 那么，结果就是：S8=1×1−281−2=1−256−1=255

  • 但是，貌似还是很复杂，我们可以换个思路，就是让 1111 1111 先 +1 ，然后再 -1，这样一增一减正好抵消掉，并且不会影响最终的结果，如下所示：

txt
  1111 1111 + 1 - 1
 = 10000 0000 - 1
 = 2⁹⁻¹ - 1
 = 2⁸ - 1 
-= 255
  • 其对应的换算过程，如下所示：

IMPORTANT

  • ① 当内存中所有的位都是 1 的时候，这种“凑整”的技巧非常实用！！！
  • ② 按照上述的技巧，我们可以很容易得计算出：
    • unsinged char（1 个字节） 的取值范围是：[0, 2⁸ - 1]。
    • unsinged short（2 个字节）的取值范围是：[0, 2¹⁶ - 1]。
    • unsinged int（4 个字节）的取值范围是：[0, 2³² - 1]。
    • unsinged long（8 个字节）的取值范围是：[0, 2⁶⁴ - 1]。

1.3.3 有符号数的取值范围 ​

  • 在 C 语言中，有符号数（signed 类型）在计算机底层是以补码的形式存储的（计算的时候，也是以补码的形式进行计算的，并且符号位参与计算）；但是，在读取的时候，需要采用逆向的转换，即：将补码转换为原码。

IMPORTANT

在 C 语言中，有符号整数，最高位是符号位，用于表示正负数。

  • 以 char 类型为例，它的取值范围，如下所示：
补码反码原码值
1111 11111111 11101000 0001-1
1111 11101111 11011000 0010-2
1111 11011111 11001000 0011-3
............
1000 00111000 00101111 1101-125
1000 00101000 00011111 1110-126
1000 00011000 00001111 1111-127
1000 0000-------128
0111 11110111 11110111 1111127
0111 11100111 11100111 1110126
0111 11010111 11010111 1101125
............
0000 00100000 00100000 00102
0000 00010000 00010000 00011
0000 00000000 00000000 00000
  • 从上面的列表中，我们可以得知，char 类型的取值范围是：[-2⁸, 2⁸ - 1]，即：[-128, 127]。
  • 对于 -128 而言，它的补码是 1000 0000，是无法按照传统的补码表示法来计算原码的，因为在补码转换到反码的时候需要 -1 ，而 1000 0000 - 1需要向高位借 1 ，而最高位是符号位是不能借的，这就非常矛盾。

IMPORTANT

计算机规定，1000 0000 这个特殊的补码就表示 -128 。

  • 但是，为什么偏偏是 -128 ，而不是其它数字？是因为 -128 使得 char 类型的取值范围保持连贯，中间没有“空隙”。如果我们按照传统的方式来计算 -128 的补码，如下所示：
    • ① 原码：在原码表示法中，-128 的数据位是 1000 0000，但是 char 的数据位只有 7 位，那么最高位 1 就变为了符号位，剩下的数据位就是 000 0000；所以，-128 的原码就是 1000 0000。
    • ② 反码：对数据位取反，-128 的反码就是：1111 1111 。
    • ③ 补码：在反码的基础上 +1，得到 1000 0000，是因为符号位被覆盖了，补码最终依然是 1000 0000。

NOTE

-128 从原码转换到补码的过程中，符号位被 1 覆盖了两次，而负数的符号位本来就是 1，被 1 覆盖多少次也不会影响到数字的符号。

  • 虽然从 1000 0000 这个补码推算不出 -128，但是从 -128 却能推算出 1000 0000 这个补码，即：有符号数在存储之前先要转换为补码。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 通过这种方式，-128 就成为了补码的最小值 1000 0000，而这个值不会与其他任何正数或负数的补码冲突。
    • 如果采用原码存储，那么将会出现 +0 和 -0 的情况，即：0000 0000、1000 0000，这样在取值范围内，就存在两个相同的值，多此一举。
    • 如果采用原码存储，最大值不变是 127 ，但是最小值只能存储到 -127 ，不能存储到 -128，因为 -128 的原码是 1000 0000，和 -0 的原码冲突。
  • ② 这就是补码系统的强大之处，它能让整数的范围连贯，并且实现了加法和减法的统一处理。
  • ③ 按照上述的方法，我们可以很容易得计算出：
    • char（1 个字节） 的取值范围是：[-2⁸, 2⁸ - 1]。
    • short（2 个字节）的取值范围是：[-2¹⁶, 2¹⁶ - 1]。
    • int（4 个字节）的取值范围是：[-2³², 2³² - 1]。
    • long（8 个字节）的取值范围是：[-2⁶⁴, 2⁶⁴ - 1]。

1.3.4 数值溢出 ​

  • 对于无符号的数值溢出：
    • 当数据到达最大值的时候，再 +1 就会回到无符号数的最小值。
    • 当数据达到最小值的时候，再 -1 就会回到无符号数的最大值。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 对于无符号整数的运算，如：加、减、乘、除、取余等，其最小值是 0 ，最大值是 2^n - 1 。如果某个计算结果超出了这个范围，计算机会自动将结果对 2^N 取余（模），从而丢失高位，只保留低位。
  • ② 以 8 位无符号整数而言，最大值是 255（1111 1111）；那么， 255 + 1 的结果就是 (2^8 -1 + 1) % 2^8 = 0，商是 256。
  • ③ 以 8 位无符号整数而言，最小值是 0（0000 0000），那么， 0 - 1 的结果就是 (0 - 1) % 2^8 = 255，商是 -1。
  • 那么，无符号的上溢出，原理就是这样的：

  • 那么，无符号的下溢出，原理就是这样的：

  • 对于有符号的数值溢出：

    • 当数据到达最大值的时候，再 +1 就会回到有符号数的最小值。
    • 当数据达到最小值的时候，再 -1 就会回到有符号数的最大值。

  • 那么，有符号的上溢出，原理就是这样的：

  • 那么，有符号的下溢出，原理就是这样的：

IMPORTANT

  • ① 在实际开发中，选择合适的数据类型，以避免数值溢出问题！！！
  • ② 数据溢出错误会导致软件运算结果出错，如：1996 年的亚利安5号运载火箭爆炸、2004 年的 Comair 航空公司航班停飞事故。
  • 示例：无符号的上溢出和下溢出
c
#include <limits.h>
+= 255
  • 其对应的换算过程，如下所示：

IMPORTANT

  • ① 当内存中所有的位都是 1 的时候，这种“凑整”的技巧非常实用！！！
  • ② 按照上述的技巧，我们可以很容易得计算出：
    • unsinged char（1 个字节） 的取值范围是：[0, 2⁸ - 1]。
    • unsinged short（2 个字节）的取值范围是：[0, 2¹⁶ - 1]。
    • unsinged int（4 个字节）的取值范围是：[0, 2³² - 1]。
    • unsinged long（8 个字节）的取值范围是：[0, 2⁶⁴ - 1]。

1.3.3 有符号数的取值范围 ​

  • 在 C 语言中，有符号数（signed 类型）在计算机底层是以补码的形式存储的（计算的时候，也是以补码的形式进行计算的，并且符号位参与计算）；但是，在读取的时候，需要采用逆向的转换，即：将补码转换为原码。

IMPORTANT

在 C 语言中，有符号整数，最高位是符号位，用于表示正负数。

  • 以 char 类型为例，它的取值范围，如下所示：
补码反码原码值
1111 11111111 11101000 0001-1
1111 11101111 11011000 0010-2
1111 11011111 11001000 0011-3
............
1000 00111000 00101111 1101-125
1000 00101000 00011111 1110-126
1000 00011000 00001111 1111-127
1000 0000-------128
0111 11110111 11110111 1111127
0111 11100111 11100111 1110126
0111 11010111 11010111 1101125
............
0000 00100000 00100000 00102
0000 00010000 00010000 00011
0000 00000000 00000000 00000
  • 从上面的列表中，我们可以得知，char 类型的取值范围是：[-2⁸, 2⁸ - 1]，即：[-128, 127]。
  • 对于 -128 而言，它的补码是 1000 0000，是无法按照传统的补码表示法来计算原码的，因为在补码转换到反码的时候需要 -1 ，而 1000 0000 - 1需要向高位借 1 ，而最高位是符号位是不能借的，这就非常矛盾。

IMPORTANT

计算机规定，1000 0000 这个特殊的补码就表示 -128 。

  • 但是，为什么偏偏是 -128 ，而不是其它数字？是因为 -128 使得 char 类型的取值范围保持连贯，中间没有“空隙”。如果我们按照传统的方式来计算 -128 的补码，如下所示：
    • ① 原码：在原码表示法中，-128 的数据位是 1000 0000，但是 char 的数据位只有 7 位，那么最高位 1 就变为了符号位，剩下的数据位就是 000 0000；所以，-128 的原码就是 1000 0000。
    • ② 反码：对数据位取反，-128 的反码就是：1111 1111 。
    • ③ 补码：在反码的基础上 +1，得到 1000 0000，是因为符号位被覆盖了，补码最终依然是 1000 0000。

NOTE

-128 从原码转换到补码的过程中，符号位被 1 覆盖了两次，而负数的符号位本来就是 1，被 1 覆盖多少次也不会影响到数字的符号。

  • 虽然从 1000 0000 这个补码推算不出 -128，但是从 -128 却能推算出 1000 0000 这个补码，即：有符号数在存储之前先要转换为补码。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 通过这种方式，-128 就成为了补码的最小值 1000 0000，而这个值不会与其他任何正数或负数的补码冲突。
    • 如果采用原码存储，那么将会出现 +0 和 -0 的情况，即：0000 0000、1000 0000，这样在取值范围内，就存在两个相同的值，多此一举。
    • 如果采用原码存储，最大值不变是 127 ，但是最小值只能存储到 -127 ，不能存储到 -128，因为 -128 的原码是 1000 0000，和 -0 的原码冲突。
  • ② 这就是补码系统的强大之处，它能让整数的范围连贯，并且实现了加法和减法的统一处理。
  • ③ 按照上述的方法，我们可以很容易得计算出：
    • char（1 个字节） 的取值范围是：[-2⁸, 2⁸ - 1]。
    • short（2 个字节）的取值范围是：[-2¹⁶, 2¹⁶ - 1]。
    • int（4 个字节）的取值范围是：[-2³², 2³² - 1]。
    • long（8 个字节）的取值范围是：[-2⁶⁴, 2⁶⁴ - 1]。

1.3.4 数值溢出 ​

  • 对于无符号的数值溢出：
    • 当数据到达最大值的时候，再 +1 就会回到无符号数的最小值。
    • 当数据达到最小值的时候，再 -1 就会回到无符号数的最大值。

IMPORTANT

  • ① 对于无符号整数的运算，如：加、减、乘、除、取余等，其最小值是 0 ，最大值是 2^n - 1 。如果某个计算结果超出了这个范围，计算机会自动将结果对 2^N 取余（模），从而丢失高位，只保留低位。
  • ② 以 8 位无符号整数而言，最大值是 255（1111 1111）；那么， 255 + 1 的结果就是 (2^8 -1 + 1) % 2^8 = 0，商是 256。
  • ③ 以 8 位无符号整数而言，最小值是 0（0000 0000），那么， 0 - 1 的结果就是 (0 - 1) % 2^8 = 255，商是 -1。
  • 那么，无符号的上溢出，原理就是这样的：

  • 那么，无符号的下溢出，原理就是这样的：

  • 对于有符号的数值溢出：

    • 当数据到达最大值的时候，再 +1 就会回到有符号数的最小值。
    • 当数据达到最小值的时候，再 -1 就会回到有符号数的最大值。

  • 那么，有符号的上溢出，原理就是这样的：

  • 那么，有符号的下溢出，原理就是这样的：

  • 示例：无符号的上溢出和下溢出
c
#include <limits.h>
 #include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
@@ -281,7 +281,7 @@
     printf("有符号的下溢出 = %hd \n", s2); // 32767
 
     return 0;
-}

1.4 浮点类型 ​

1.4.1 概述 ​

  • 在生活中，我们除了使用整数，如：18、25 之外，还会使用到小数，如：3.1415926、6.18 等，小数在计算机中也被称为浮点数（和底层存储有关）。
  • 整数在计算机底层的存储被称为定点存储，如下所示：

  • 小数在计算机底层的存储被称为浮点存储，如下所示：

NOTE

  • ① 计算机底层就是采取类似科学计数法的形式来存储小数的，而科学计数法的表现就是这样的，如：3.12 * 10^-2 ；其中，10 是基数，-2 是指数，而 3.12 是尾数。
  • ② 因为尾数区的内存空间的宽度不同，导致了小数的精度也不相同，所以小数在计算机中也称为浮点数。
  • 在 C 语言中，变量的浮点类型，如下所示：
类型存储大小值的范围有效小数位数
float（单精度）4 字节1.2E-38 ~ 3.4E+386 ~ 9
double（双精度）8 字节2.3E-308 ~ 1.7E+30815 ~ 18
long double（长双精度）16 字节3.4E-4932 ~ 1.2E+493218 或更多

NOTE

  • ① 各类型的存储大小和精度受到操作系统、编译器、硬件平台的影响。
  • ② 浮点型数据有两种表现形式：
    • 十进制数形式：3.12、512.0f、0.512（.512，可以省略 0 ）
    • 科学计数法形式：5.12e2（e 表示基数 10）、5.12E-2（E 表示基数 10）。
  • ③ 在实际开发中，对于浮点类型，建议使用 double 类型；如果范围不够，就使用 long double 类型。

1.4.2 格式占位符 ​

  • 对于 float 类型的格式占位符，是 %f ，默认会保留 6 位小数；可以指定小数位，如：%.2f 表示保留 2 位小数。

  • 对于 double 类型的格式占位符，是 %lf ，默认会保留 6 位小数；可以指定小数位，如：%.2lf 表示保留 2 位小数。

  • 对于 long double 类型的格式占位符，是 %Lf ，默认会保留 6 位小数；可以指定小数位，如：%.2Lf 表示保留 2 位小数。

  • 如果想输出科学计数法形式的浮点数，则使用 %e。

  • 示例：

c
#include <stdio.h>
+}

1.4 浮点类型 ​

1.4.1 概述 ​

  • 在生活中，我们除了使用整数，如：18、25 之外，还会使用到小数，如：3.1415926、6.18 等，小数在计算机中也被称为浮点数（和底层存储有关）。
  • 整数在计算机底层的存储被称为定点存储，如下所示：

  • 小数在计算机底层的存储被称为浮点存储，如下所示：

NOTE

  • ① 计算机底层就是采取类似科学计数法的形式来存储小数的，而科学计数法的表现就是这样的，如：3.12 * 10^-2 ；其中，10 是基数，-2 是指数，而 3.12 是尾数。
  • ② 因为尾数区的内存空间的宽度不同，导致了小数的精度也不相同，所以小数在计算机中也称为浮点数。
  • 在 C 语言中，变量的浮点类型，如下所示：
类型存储大小值的范围有效小数位数
float（单精度）4 字节1.2E-38 ~ 3.4E+386 ~ 9
double（双精度）8 字节2.3E-308 ~ 1.7E+30815 ~ 18
long double（长双精度）16 字节3.4E-4932 ~ 1.2E+493218 或更多

NOTE

  • ① 各类型的存储大小和精度受到操作系统、编译器、硬件平台的影响。
  • ② 浮点型数据有两种表现形式：
    • 十进制数形式：3.12、512.0f、0.512（.512，可以省略 0 ）
    • 科学计数法形式：5.12e2（e 表示基数 10）、5.12E-2（E 表示基数 10）。
  • ③ 在实际开发中，对于浮点类型，建议使用 double 类型；如果范围不够，就使用 long double 类型。

1.4.2 格式占位符 ​

  • 对于 float 类型的格式占位符，是 %f ，默认会保留 6 位小数，不足 6 位以 0 补充；可以指定小数位，如：%.2f 表示保留 2 位小数。
  • 对于 double 类型的格式占位符，是 %lf ，默认会保留 6 位小数，不足 6 位以 0 补充；可以指定小数位，如：%.2lf 表示保留 2 位小数。
  • 对于 long double 类型的格式占位符，是 %Lf ，默认会保留 6 位小数，不足 6 位以 0 补充；可以指定小数位，如：%.2Lf 表示保留 2 位小数。

NOTE

  • ① 如果想输出科学计数法形式的 float 类型的浮点数，则使用 %e。
  • ② 如果想输出科学计数法形式的 double 类型的浮点数，则使用 %le。
  • ③ 如果想输出科学计数法形式的 long double 类型的浮点数，则使用 %Le。

NOTE

  • ① 浮点数还有一种更加智能的输出方式，就是使用 %g（g 是 general format 的缩写，即：通用格式），%g 会根据数值的大小自动判断，选择使用普通的浮点数格式（%f）进行输出，还是使用科学计数法（%e）进行输出，即：float 类型的两种输出形式。
  • ② 同理，%lg 会根据数值的大小自动判断，选择使用普通的浮点数格式（%lf）进行输出，还是使用科学计数法（%le）进行输出，即：double 类型的两种输出形式。
  • ③ 同理，%Lg 会根据数值的大小自动判断，选择使用普通的浮点数格式（%Lf）进行输出，还是使用科学计数法（%Le）进行输出，即：long double 类型的两种输出形式。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -324,7 +324,7 @@
     printf("d2 = %.2e \n", d2); // d2 = 3.14e+02
 
     return 0;
-}

1.4.3 字面量后缀 ​

  • 浮点数字面量默认是 double 类型。

  • 如果需要表示 float 类型的字面量，需要后面添加后缀 f 或 F。

  • 如果需要表示 long double 类型的字面量，需要后面添加后缀 l 或 L。

  • 示例：

c
#include <stdio.h>
+}

1.4.3 字面量后缀 ​

  • 浮点数字面量默认是 double 类型。

  • 如果需要表示 float 类型的字面量，需要后面添加后缀 f 或 F，建议 F。

  • 如果需要表示 long double 类型的字面量，需要后面添加后缀 l 或 L，建议 L。

  • 示例：

c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -337,7 +337,7 @@
     printf("d3 = %.4Lf \n", d3); // d3 = 3.1416
 
     return 0;
-}

1.4.4 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间） ​

  • 可以通过 sizeof 运算符来获取 float、double 以及 long double 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）。

  • 示例：

c
#include <stdio.h>
+}

1.4.4 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间） ​

  • 可以通过 sizeof 运算符来获取 float、double 以及 long double 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）。

  • 示例：

c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -356,7 +356,20 @@
     printf("double 的取值范围是：[%Lf, %Lf] \n", LDBL_MIN, LDBL_MAX);
 
     return 0;
-}

1.5 字符类型 ​

1.5.1 概述 ​

  • 在生活中，我们会经常说：今天天气真 好，我的性别是 女，我今年 10 岁，像这类数据，在 C 语言中就可以用字符（char）来表示。
  • 在 C 语言中，变量的字符类型可以表示单个字符，如：'1'、'A'、'&'。

NOTE

  • ① C 语言的出现在 1972 年，由美国人丹尼斯·里奇设计出来；那个时候，只需要 1 个字节的内存空间，就可以完美的表示拉丁体系（英文）文字，如：a-z、A-Z、0-9 以及一些特殊符号；所以，C 语言中不支持多个字节的字符，如：中文、日文等。
  • ② 像拉丁体系（英文）文字，如：a-z、A-Z、0-9 以及一些特殊符号，只需要单个字节的内存存储空间就能存储的，我们就称为窄类型；而像中文、日文等单个字节的内存空间存储不了的，我们就称为宽类型。
  • ③ C 语言中没有字符串类型，是使用字符数组（char 数组）来模拟字符串的，并且字符数组也不是字符串，而是构造类型。
  • ④ 在 C 语言中，如果想要输出中文、日文等多字节字符，就需要使用字符数组（char 数组）。
  • ⑤ 在 C++、Java 等高级编程语言中，已经提供了 String （字符串）类型，原生支持 Unicode，可以方便地处理多语言和特殊字符。
  • 在 C 语言中，可以使用转义字符 \来表示特殊含义的字符。
转义字符说明
\b退格
\n换行符
\r回车符
\t制表符
\"双引号
\'单引号
\\反斜杠
...

1.5.2 格式占位符 ​

  • 在 C 语言中，使用 %c 来表示 char 类型。

  • 示例：

c
#include <stdio.h>
+}

1.4.6 整数和浮点数的相互赋值 ​

  • 在 C 语言中，整数和浮点数是可以相互赋值的，即：
    • 将一个整数赋值给小数类型，只需要在小数点后面加 0 就可以了。
    • 将一个浮点数赋值给整数类型，就会将小数部分丢掉，只会取整数部分，会改变数字本身的值。

WARNING

  • ① 在 C 语言中，浮点数赋值给整数类型，会直接截断小数点后面的数，编译器一般只会给出警告，让我们注意一下（C 语言在检查类型匹配方面不太严格，最好不要养成这样的习惯）。
  • ② 但是，在 Java 等编程语言中，这样的写法是不可以的，会在编译阶段直接报错。
  • 示例：
c
#include <stdio.h>
+
+int main() {
+
+    // 禁用 stdout 缓冲区
+    setbuf(stdout, NULL);
+
+    float a = 123;        // 整数赋值给浮点类型，只需要在小数点，后面加 0 即可
+    printf("a=%f \n", a); // a=123.000000
+
+    int b = 123.00;       // 浮点赋值给整数类型，会直接截断小数点后面的数
+    printf("b=%d \n", b); // b=123
+    return 0;
+}

1.5 字符类型 ​

1.5.1 概述 ​

  • 在生活中，我们会经常说：今天天气真 好，我的性别是 女，我今年 10 岁，像这类数据，在 C 语言中就可以用字符（char）来表示。
  • 在 C 语言中，变量的字符类型可以表示单个字符，如：'1'、'A'、'&'。

NOTE

  • ① C 语言的出现在 1972 年，由美国人丹尼斯·里奇设计出来；那个时候，只需要 1 个字节的内存空间，就可以完美的表示拉丁体系（英文）文字，如：a-z、A-Z、0-9 以及一些特殊符号；所以，C 语言中不支持多个字节的字符，如：中文、日文等。
  • ② 像拉丁体系（英文）文字，如：a-z、A-Z、0-9 以及一些特殊符号，只需要单个字节的内存存储空间就能存储的，我们就称为窄类型；而像中文、日文等单个字节的内存空间存储不了的，我们就称为宽类型。
  • ③ C 语言中没有字符串类型，是使用字符数组（char 数组）来模拟字符串的，并且字符数组也不是字符串，而是构造类型。
  • ④ 在 C 语言中，如果想要输出中文、日文等多字节字符，就需要使用字符数组（char 数组）。
  • ⑤ 在 C++、Java 等高级编程语言中，已经提供了 String （字符串）类型，原生支持 Unicode，可以方便地处理多语言和特殊字符。
  • 在 C 语言中，可以使用转义字符 \来表示特殊含义的字符。
转义字符说明
\b退格
\n换行符
\r回车符
\t制表符
\"双引号
\'单引号
\\反斜杠
...

1.5.2 格式占位符 ​

  • 在 C 语言中，使用 %c 来表示 char 类型。

  • 示例：

c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -371,7 +384,7 @@
     printf("c3 = %c \n", c3); // c3 = A
 
     return 0;
-}

1.5.3 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间） ​

  • 可以通过 sizeof 运算符来获取 char 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）。

  • 示例：

c
#include <stdio.h>
+}

1.5.3 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间） ​

  • 可以通过 sizeof 运算符来获取 char 类型占用的内存大小（存储空间）。

  • 示例：

c
#include <stdio.h>
 
 int main() {
 
@@ -821,8 +834,8 @@
     printf("result = %d\n", result); // result = 110
 
     return 0;
-}

2.8 运算符优先级 ​

  • C 语言中运算符的优先级，如下所示：
优先级运算符名称或含义结合方向
1[]数组下标➡️（从左到右）
()圆括号
.成员选择（对象）
->成员选择（指针）
2-负号运算符⬅️（从右到左）
（类型）强制类型转换
++自增运算符
--自减运算符
*取值运算符
&取地址运算符
!逻辑非运算符
~按位取反运算符
sizeof长度运算符
3/除➡️（从左到右）
*乘
%余数（取模）
4+加➡️（从左到右）
-减
5<<左移➡️（从左到右）
>>右移
6>大于➡️（从左到右）
>=大于等于
<小于
<=小于等于
7==等于➡️（从左到右）
!=不等于
8&按位与➡️（从左到右）
9^按位异或➡️（从左到右）
10|按位或➡️（从左到右）
11&&逻辑与➡️（从左到右）
12||逻辑或➡️（从左到右）
13?:条件运算符⬅️（从右到左）
14=赋值运算符⬅️（从右到左）
/=除后赋值
*=乘后赋值
%=取模后赋值
+=加后赋值
-=减后赋值
<<=左移后赋值
>>=右移后赋值
&=按位与后赋值
^=按位异或后赋值
|=按位或后赋值
15,逗号运算符➡️（从左到右）

WARNING

  • ① 不要过多的依赖运算符的优先级来控制表达式的执行顺序，这样可读性太差，尽量使用小括号来控制表达式的执行顺序。
  • ② 不要把一个表达式写得过于复杂，如果一个表达式过于复杂，则把它分成几步来完成。
  • ③ 运算符优先级不用刻意地去记忆，总体上：一元运算符 > 算术运算符 > 关系运算符 > 逻辑运算符 > 三元运算符 > 赋值运算符。

第三章：附录 ​

3.1 字符集和字符集编码 ​

3.3.1 概述 ​

  • 字符集和字符集编码（简称编码）计算机系统中处理文本数据的两个基本概念，它们密切相关但又有区别。
  • 字符集（Character Set）是一组字符的集合，其中每个字符都被分配了一个唯一的编号（通常是数字）。字符可以是字母、数字、符号、控制代码（如换行符）等。字符集定义了可以表示的字符的范围，但它并不直接定义如何将这些字符存储在计算机中。

NOTE

ASCII（美国信息交换标准代码）是最早期和最简单的字符集之一，它只包括了英文字母、数字和一些特殊字符，共 128 个字符。每个字符都分配给了一个从 0 到 127 的数字。

  • 字符集编码（Character Encoding，简称编码）是一种方案或方法，它定义了如何将字符集中的字符转换为计算机存储和传输的数据（通常是一串二进制数字）。简而言之，编码是字符到二进制数据之间的映射规则。

NOTE

ASCII 编码方案定义了如何将 ASCII 字符集中的每个字符表示为 7 位的二进制数字。例如：大写字母'A'在 ASCII 编码中表示为二进制的1000001，十进制的 65 。

  • 字符集和字符集编码之间的关系如下：

  • Linux 中安装帮助手册：

3.3.2 ASCII 编码 ​

  • 从冯·诺依曼体系结构中，我们知道，计算机中所有的数据和指令都是以二进制的形式表示的；所以，计算机中对于文本数据的数据也是以二进制来存储的，那么对应的流程如下：

  • 我们知道，计算机是上个世纪 60 年代在美国研制成功的，为了实现字符和二进制的转换，美国就制定了一套字符编码，即英语字符和二进制位之间的关系，即 ASCII （American Standard Code for Information Interchange）编码：
    • ASCII 编码只包括了英文字符、数字和一些特殊字符，一共 128 个字符，并且每个字符都分配了唯一的数字，范围是 0 - 127。
    • ASCII 编码中的每个字符都使用 7 位的二进制数字表示；但是，计算机中的存储的最小单位是 1 B = 8 位，那么最高位统一规定为 0 。

NOTE

  • ① 其实，早期是没有字符集的概念的，只是后来为了解决乱码问题，而产生了字符集的概念。
  • ② 对于英文体系来说，a-zA-Z0-9以及一些特殊字符一共 128 就可以满足实际存储需求；所以，在也是为什么 ASCII 码使用 7 位二进制（2^7 = 128 ）来存储的。
  • 在操作系统中，就内置了对应的编码表，Linux 也不例外；可以使用如下的命令查看：
shell
man ascii

  • 其对应的 ASCII 编码表，如下所示：

  • 但是，随着计算机的发展，计算机开始了东征之路，由美国传播到东方：

  • 先是传播到了欧洲，欧洲在兼容 ASCII 编码的基础上，推出了 ISO8859-1 编码，即：
    • ISO8859-1 编码包括基本的拉丁字母表、数字、标点符号，以及西欧语言中特有的一些字符，如：法语中的 è、德语中的 ü 等。
    • ISO 8859-1 为每个字符分配一个单字节（8 位）编码，意味着它可以表示最多 256 （2^8）个不同的字符（编号从 0 到 255）。
    • ISO 8859-1 的前 128 个字符与 ASCII 编码完全一致，这使得 ASCII 编码的文本可以无缝转换为 ISO 8859-1 编码。

  • 计算机继续传播到了亚洲，亚洲（双字节）各个国家分别给出了自己国家对应的字符集编码，如：
    • 日本推出了 Shift-JIS 编码：
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围：
        • 第一个字节：129 - 159 和 224 - 239 。
        • 第二个字节：64 - 126 和 128 - 252 。
    • 韩国推出了 EUC-KR 编码：
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围：从 41281 - 65278。
    • 中国推出了 GBK 编码：
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围：33088 - 65278 。

NOTE

  • ① 通过上面日本、韩国、中国的编码十进制范围，我们可以看到，虽然这些编码系统在技术上的编码范围存在重叠（特别是在高位字节区域），但因为它们各自支持的字符集完全不同，所以实际上它们并不直接冲突。
  • ② 但是，如果一个中国人通过 GBK 编码写的文章，通过邮件发送给韩国人，因为韩国和中国在字符集编码上的高位字节有重叠部分，必然会造成歧义。

3.3.3 Unicode 编码 ​

  • 在 Unicode 之前，世界上存在着数百种不同的编码系统，每一种编码系统都是为了支持特定语言或一组语言的字符集。这些编码系统，包括：ASCII、ISO 8859 系列、GBK、Shift-JIS、EUC-KR 等，它们各自有不同的字符范围和编码方式。这种多样性虽然在局部范围内解决了字符表示的问题，但也带来了以下几个方面的挑战：

    • 编码冲突：由于不同的编码系统可以为相同的字节值分配不同的字符，因此在不同编码之间转换文本时，如果没有正确处理编码信息，就很容易产生乱码。这种编码冲突在尝试处理多种语言的文本时尤为突出。
    • 编码的复杂性：随着全球化的发展，软件和系统需要支持越来越多的语言，这就要求开发者和系统同时处理多种不同的编码系统。这不仅增加了开发和维护的复杂性，而且也增加了出错的风险。
    • 资源限制：在早期计算机技术中，内存和存储资源相对有限。不同的编码标准要求系统存储多套字符集数据，这无疑增加了对有限资源的消耗。
    • ……

  • 针对上述的种种问题，为了推行全球化，Unicode 应运而生，Unicode 的核心规则和设计原则是建立一个全球统一的字符集，使得世界上所有的文字和符号都能被唯一地识别和使用，无论使用者位于何地或使用何种语言。这套规则包括了字符的编码、表示、处理和转换机制，旨在确保不同系统和软件间能够无缝交换和处理文本数据。

    • 通用字符集 (UCS)：Unicode 为每一个字符分配一个唯一的编号（称为“码点”）。这些码点被组织在一个统一的字符集中，官方称之为 “通用字符集”（Universal Character Set，UCS）。码点通常表示为 U+ 后跟一个十六进制数，例如：U+0041 代表大写的英文字母 “A”。
    • 编码平面和区段：Unicode 码点被划分为多个 “平面（Planes）”，每个平面包含 65536（16^4）个码点。目前，Unicode定义了 17 个平面（从 0 到16），每个平面被分配了一个编号，从 “基本多文种平面（BMP）” 的 0 开始，到 16 号平面结束。这意味着 Unicode 理论上可以支持超过 110万（17*65536）个码点。

  • Unicode 仅仅只是字符集，给每个字符设置了唯一的数字编号而已，却没有给出这些数字编号实际如何存储，可以通过如下命令查看：

  • 为了在计算机系统中表示 Unicode 字符，定义了几种编码方案，这些方案包括 UTF-8、UTF-16 和 UTF-32 等。
    • UTF-8：使用 1 - 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，兼容 ASCII，是网络上最常用的编码。
    • UTF-16：使用 2 - 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，适合于需要经常处理基本多文种平面之外字符的应用。
    • UTF-32：使用固定的 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，简化了字符处理，但增加了存储空间的需求。
  • Unicode 字符集和对应的UTF-8 字符编码之间的关系，如下所示：

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- +}

2.8 运算符优先级 ​

  • C 语言中运算符的优先级，如下所示：
优先级运算符名称或含义结合方向
1[]数组下标➡️（从左到右）
()圆括号
.成员选择（对象）
->成员选择（指针）
2-负号运算符⬅️（从右到左）
（类型）强制类型转换
++自增运算符
--自减运算符
*取值运算符
&取地址运算符
!逻辑非运算符
~按位取反运算符
sizeof长度运算符
3/除➡️（从左到右）
*乘
%余数（取模）
4+加➡️（从左到右）
-减
5<<左移➡️（从左到右）
>>右移
6>大于➡️（从左到右）
>=大于等于
<小于
<=小于等于
7==等于➡️（从左到右）
!=不等于
8&按位与➡️（从左到右）
9^按位异或➡️（从左到右）
10|按位或➡️（从左到右）
11&&逻辑与➡️（从左到右）
12||逻辑或➡️（从左到右）
13?:条件运算符⬅️（从右到左）
14=赋值运算符⬅️（从右到左）
/=除后赋值
*=乘后赋值
%=取模后赋值
+=加后赋值
-=减后赋值
<<=左移后赋值
>>=右移后赋值
&=按位与后赋值
^=按位异或后赋值
|=按位或后赋值
15,逗号运算符➡️（从左到右）

WARNING

  • ① 不要过多的依赖运算符的优先级来控制表达式的执行顺序，这样可读性太差，尽量使用小括号来控制表达式的执行顺序。
  • ② 不要把一个表达式写得过于复杂，如果一个表达式过于复杂，则把它分成几步来完成。
  • ③ 运算符优先级不用刻意地去记忆，总体上：一元运算符 > 算术运算符 > 关系运算符 > 逻辑运算符 > 三元运算符 > 赋值运算符。

第三章：附录 ​

3.1 字符集和字符集编码 ​

3.3.1 概述 ​

  • 字符集和字符集编码（简称编码）计算机系统中处理文本数据的两个基本概念，它们密切相关但又有区别。
  • 字符集（Character Set）是一组字符的集合，其中每个字符都被分配了一个唯一的编号（通常是数字）。字符可以是字母、数字、符号、控制代码（如换行符）等。字符集定义了可以表示的字符的范围，但它并不直接定义如何将这些字符存储在计算机中。

NOTE

ASCII（美国信息交换标准代码）是最早期和最简单的字符集之一，它只包括了英文字母、数字和一些特殊字符，共 128 个字符。每个字符都分配给了一个从 0 到 127 的数字。

  • 字符集编码（Character Encoding，简称编码）是一种方案或方法，它定义了如何将字符集中的字符转换为计算机存储和传输的数据（通常是一串二进制数字）。简而言之，编码是字符到二进制数据之间的映射规则。

NOTE

ASCII 编码方案定义了如何将 ASCII 字符集中的每个字符表示为 7 位的二进制数字。例如：大写字母'A'在 ASCII 编码中表示为二进制的1000001，十进制的 65 。

  • 字符集和字符集编码之间的关系如下：

  • Linux 中安装帮助手册：

3.3.2 ASCII 编码 ​

  • 从冯·诺依曼体系结构中，我们知道，计算机中所有的数据和指令都是以二进制的形式表示的；所以，计算机中对于文本数据的数据也是以二进制来存储的，那么对应的流程如下：

  • 我们知道，计算机是上个世纪 60 年代在美国研制成功的，为了实现字符和二进制的转换，美国就制定了一套字符编码，即英语字符和二进制位之间的关系，即 ASCII （American Standard Code for Information Interchange）编码：
    • ASCII 编码只包括了英文字符、数字和一些特殊字符，一共 128 个字符，并且每个字符都分配了唯一的数字，范围是 0 - 127。
    • ASCII 编码中的每个字符都使用 7 位的二进制数字表示；但是，计算机中的存储的最小单位是 1 B = 8 位，那么最高位统一规定为 0 。

NOTE

  • ① 其实，早期是没有字符集的概念的，只是后来为了解决乱码问题，而产生了字符集的概念。
  • ② 对于英文体系来说，a-zA-Z0-9以及一些特殊字符一共 128 就可以满足实际存储需求；所以，在也是为什么 ASCII 码使用 7 位二进制（2^7 = 128 ）来存储的。
  • 在操作系统中，就内置了对应的编码表，Linux 也不例外；可以使用如下的命令查看：
shell
man ascii

  • 其对应的 ASCII 编码表，如下所示：

  • 但是，随着计算机的发展，计算机开始了东征之路，由美国传播到东方：

  • 先是传播到了欧洲，欧洲在兼容 ASCII 编码的基础上，推出了 ISO8859-1 编码，即：
    • ISO8859-1 编码包括基本的拉丁字母表、数字、标点符号，以及西欧语言中特有的一些字符，如：法语中的 è、德语中的 ü 等。
    • ISO 8859-1 为每个字符分配一个单字节（8 位）编码，意味着它可以表示最多 256 （2^8）个不同的字符（编号从 0 到 255）。
    • ISO 8859-1 的前 128 个字符与 ASCII 编码完全一致，这使得 ASCII 编码的文本可以无缝转换为 ISO 8859-1 编码。

  • 计算机继续传播到了亚洲，亚洲（双字节）各个国家分别给出了自己国家对应的字符集编码，如：
    • 日本推出了 Shift-JIS 编码：
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围：
        • 第一个字节：129 - 159 和 224 - 239 。
        • 第二个字节：64 - 126 和 128 - 252 。
    • 韩国推出了 EUC-KR 编码：
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围：从 41281 - 65278。
    • 中国推出了 GBK 编码：
      • 单字节 ASCII 范围：0 - 127。
      • 双字节范围：33088 - 65278 。

NOTE

  • ① 通过上面日本、韩国、中国的编码十进制范围，我们可以看到，虽然这些编码系统在技术上的编码范围存在重叠（特别是在高位字节区域），但因为它们各自支持的字符集完全不同，所以实际上它们并不直接冲突。
  • ② 但是，如果一个中国人通过 GBK 编码写的文章，通过邮件发送给韩国人，因为韩国和中国在字符集编码上的高位字节有重叠部分，必然会造成歧义。

3.3.3 Unicode 编码 ​

  • 在 Unicode 之前，世界上存在着数百种不同的编码系统，每一种编码系统都是为了支持特定语言或一组语言的字符集。这些编码系统，包括：ASCII、ISO 8859 系列、GBK、Shift-JIS、EUC-KR 等，它们各自有不同的字符范围和编码方式。这种多样性虽然在局部范围内解决了字符表示的问题，但也带来了以下几个方面的挑战：

    • 编码冲突：由于不同的编码系统可以为相同的字节值分配不同的字符，因此在不同编码之间转换文本时，如果没有正确处理编码信息，就很容易产生乱码。这种编码冲突在尝试处理多种语言的文本时尤为突出。
    • 编码的复杂性：随着全球化的发展，软件和系统需要支持越来越多的语言，这就要求开发者和系统同时处理多种不同的编码系统。这不仅增加了开发和维护的复杂性，而且也增加了出错的风险。
    • 资源限制：在早期计算机技术中，内存和存储资源相对有限。不同的编码标准要求系统存储多套字符集数据，这无疑增加了对有限资源的消耗。
    • ……

  • 针对上述的种种问题，为了推行全球化，Unicode 应运而生，Unicode 的核心规则和设计原则是建立一个全球统一的字符集，使得世界上所有的文字和符号都能被唯一地识别和使用，无论使用者位于何地或使用何种语言。这套规则包括了字符的编码、表示、处理和转换机制，旨在确保不同系统和软件间能够无缝交换和处理文本数据。

    • 通用字符集 (UCS)：Unicode 为每一个字符分配一个唯一的编号（称为“码点”）。这些码点被组织在一个统一的字符集中，官方称之为 “通用字符集”（Universal Character Set，UCS）。码点通常表示为 U+ 后跟一个十六进制数，例如：U+0041 代表大写的英文字母 “A”。
    • 编码平面和区段：Unicode 码点被划分为多个 “平面（Planes）”，每个平面包含 65536（16^4）个码点。目前，Unicode定义了 17 个平面（从 0 到16），每个平面被分配了一个编号，从 “基本多文种平面（BMP）” 的 0 开始，到 16 号平面结束。这意味着 Unicode 理论上可以支持超过 110万（17*65536）个码点。

  • Unicode 仅仅只是字符集，给每个字符设置了唯一的数字编号而已，却没有给出这些数字编号实际如何存储，可以通过如下命令查看：

  • 为了在计算机系统中表示 Unicode 字符，定义了几种编码方案，这些方案包括 UTF-8、UTF-16 和 UTF-32 等。
    • UTF-8：使用 1 - 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，兼容 ASCII，是网络上最常用的编码。
    • UTF-16：使用 2 - 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，适合于需要经常处理基本多文种平面之外字符的应用。
    • UTF-32：使用固定的 4 个字节表示每个 Unicode 字符，简化了字符处理，但增加了存储空间的需求。
  • Unicode 字符集和对应的UTF-8 字符编码之间的关系，如下所示：

3.2 小数在内存中是如何存储的？ ​

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

+ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/04_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/04_xdx/index.html index f8de1ab..efb16da 100644 --- a/notes/01_c-basic/04_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/01_c-basic/04_xdx/index.html @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ - + - + @@ -774,7 +774,7 @@ return 0; }

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/05_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/05_xdx/index.html index 7d7796a..2cfb089 100644 --- a/notes/01_c-basic/05_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/01_c-basic/05_xdx/index.html @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ - + - + @@ -722,7 +722,7 @@ return 0; }

WARNING

在上述示例中，arr 和 &arr 的值是一样的，但是对应的含义是不同的。

  • ① arr 是数组名，在大多数情况下会转换为数组第一个元素的地址，即：arr 等价于 &arr[0]，其数据类型是 int *。
  • ② &arr是数组名的地址，即整个数组的地址，它指向数组本身，并不是数组第一个元素的地址，&arr 的数据类型是 int(*)[3]。

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/01_c-basic/06_xdx/index.html b/notes/01_c-basic/06_xdx/index.html index a9596d7..d624d2f 100644 --- a/notes/01_c-basic/06_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/01_c-basic/06_xdx/index.html @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ - + - + @@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ printf("Address of array: %p\n", &arr); // 返回整个数组的地址 printf("Address of pointer: %p\n", &ptr); // 返回指针变量ptr的地址

综上所述，通过这些示例和解释，可以看出数组名虽然在某些场合下可以像指针一样使用，但它并不是一个真正的指针变量，而是一个常量，表示数组的首地址。

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

- + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/notes/04_linux/01_xdx/index.html b/notes/04_linux/01_xdx/index.html index 1cc365c..86366d1 100644 --- a/notes/04_linux/01_xdx/index.html +++ b/notes/04_linux/01_xdx/index.html @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ - + - + @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@
许大仙

深浅模式

第一章：Linux ​

1.1 Linux 概述 ​

  • Linux 是一种开源的操作系统，最初由芬兰的林纳斯·托瓦兹（Linus Torvalds）开发。它基于 UNIX 操作系统，并且具有高度的可定制性和灵活性。Linux 操作系统被广泛应用于服务器、嵌入式系统和个人计算机等领域。
  • 它具有稳定性、安全性和可靠性，并且支持多用户、多任务和多线程。Linux 拥有众多的发行版，如：Ubuntu、Red Hat、Debian 等，每个发行版都有自己的特点和优势。
  • 由于其开源性质，Linux 操作系统受到了全球开发者的广泛支持和贡献，成为了计算机行业中的重要组成部分。

1.2 Linux 的发展史 ​

  • Linux 的发展历史可以分为以下几个阶段：

    • ① 初始阶段（1991 - 1994 年）：林纳斯·托瓦兹在 1991 年发布了 Linux 内核的第一个版本，并将其开源。在接下来的几年里，Linux 逐渐吸引了一些开发者的关注和参与，开始逐步完善和扩展功能。
    • ② 发展阶段（1995 - 2000 年）：在这个阶段，Linux 开始受到更多人的关注和认可。许多开发者和公司开始为 Linux 开发应用程序和驱动程序，为其增加更多的功能和兼容性。同时，一些发行版如：Red Hat、Debian 等也开始出现，为用户提供了更方便的安装和使用方式。
    • ③ 商业化阶段（2001 - 至今）：随着 Linux 的成熟和广泛应用，越来越多的公司开始将 Linux 作为服务器和嵌入式设备的操作系统。一些大型科技公司，如：IBM、Oracle 等也开始投入大量资源支持 Linux 的发展。同时，一些商业化的 Linux 发行版，如：SUSE、Ubuntu 等也崭露头角，为企业和个人用户提供了更专业的支持和服务。
    • ④ 社区发展阶段：Linux 的发展一直依赖于全球开发者社区的贡献和支持。Linux 社区不断壮大，吸引了众多的开发者和爱好者参与其中。通过社区的力量，Linux 不断更新迭代，推出了许多新的版本和功能。

  • 总的来说，Linux 的发展历程是一个由个人项目逐渐发展为全球开源社区支持的过程。它的成功得益于开源模式的优势，以及全球开发者的共同努力和贡献。

1.3 Linux 的组成（⭐） ​

  • Linux 主要由以下几个组成部分构成：

    • ① Linux 内核：Linux 内核是整个操作系统的核心，负责管理硬件设备、内存管理、进程调度等核心功能。它是由林纳斯·托瓦兹及其他开发者编写和维护的。
    • ② Shell 解释器：Shell 解释器是用户与操作系统交互的接口，它接收用户输入的命令并将其解释执行。常见的 Shell 解释器有 Bash、Zsh 等，它们提供了命令行界面和脚本编程功能。
    • ③ 外围的应用程序：命令、应用程序、图形化界面……

  • 其图示如下：

image-20240115214505877

  • 上述的组成部分共同构成了一个完整的 Linux 操作系统，为用户提供了丰富的功能和灵活性。

1.4 Linux 发行版本（⭐） ​

  • Linux 发行版本就是：Linux 内核 + 命令解释器 + 应用程序（桌面）。
  • 主流的 Linux 发行版本如下：
Linux 系统类别Linux 系统备注
Debian 系列Debian更新频率较低，较为稳定和安全，可以用于企业生产环境。
Ubuntu桌面美观，使用方便，开发使用。有桌面版和企业版本（服务器版本）。
Redhat 系列RedHat Enterprise Linux（RHEL）红帽企业版本
CentOS基于 Red Hat Enterprise Linux（RHEL）源代码构建的免费开源操作系统。它提供了企业级的稳定性和安全性，广泛用于服务器环境。
FedoraFedora 是由 Red Hat 赞助的社区驱动的 Linux 发行版，注重最新的软件和技术。它提供了一个先进的桌面环境和开发者工具。
Rocky Linux用来替代 CentOS 系统的，也是基于 Red Hat Enterprise Linux（RHEL）源代码构建的免费开源操作系统。
Alma Linux用来替代 CentOS 系统的，也是基于 Red Hat Enterprise Linux（RHEL）源代码构建的免费开源操作系统。
其它系列SUSE、OpenSUSEOpenSUSE 是一个用户友好且功能强大的 Linux 发行版，具有稳定性和灵活性。它提供了多种桌面环境和服务器选项。
  • 当然，除了以上几个主流的 Linux 发行版，还有许多其他的发行版，如：Arch Linux、Gentoo、Mageia 等，它们各自有着不同的特点和适用场景。
  • 选择适合自己需求的发行版是根据个人或组织的需求和偏好来决定的。

1.5 Linux 版本选择（⭐） ​

  • 推荐选择 LTS 版或稳定版。

WARNING

  • LTS 是 "Long-Term Support" 的缩写，意为长期支持。在软件开发领域，LTS 通常用来描述某个版本或发行版的长期支持周期。
  • 对于 Linux 发行版或其他软件，LTS 版本通常会提供更长时间的支持和维护，以确保稳定性和安全性。这意味着在 LTS 版本的支持周期内，开发者会持续提供安全补丁、错误修复和其他重要更新，以保持系统的稳定性和可靠性。
  • LTS 版本通常适用于企业和组织等需要长期稳定性和可靠性的环境。相比于非 LTS 版本，LTS 版本的更新频率较低，更注重于提供长期支持和维护。
  • 本次选择：
系统版本说明
UbuntuLTS 18.04 、LTS 20.04 等
AlmaLinux9.1、9.2、9.3 等

第二章：工作和学习环境部署（⭐） ​

2.1 服务器 ​

  • 服务器是一种专门用于提供服务的计算机系统。它通常具有更高的性能、可靠性和稳定性，以满足处理大量请求和提供持续服务的需求。
  • 服务器的主要功能是接收来自客户端的请求，并提供相应的服务或资源。这些服务可以包括：网站托管、数据库管理、文件存储、电子邮件、应用程序运行等。服务器通过网络与客户端进行通信，处理请求并返回相应的数据或结果。
  • 服务器通常采用高性能的硬件配置，如:多核处理器、大容量内存、高速存储设备等，以确保能够处理大量的并发请求。它们还通常具有冗余的设计，包括冗余电源、冗余网络连接和冗余存储等，以提高可靠性和可用性。
  • 服务器可以是物理服务器，即实际的硬件设备，也可以是虚拟服务器，即在物理服务器上通过虚拟化技术创建的虚拟机。无论是物理服务器还是虚拟服务器，它们都扮演着提供服务和资源的角色。
  • 在企业和组织中，服务器通常由专门的 IT 团队进行管理和维护。他们负责服务器的配置、安全性、性能优化、备份和恢复等工作，以确保服务器的稳定运行和数据的安全性。

TIP

实际工作的时候，Linux 系统会运行在服务器上。

2.2 虚拟机概述 ​

  • 虚拟机（Virtual Machine，简称 VM）是一种软件实现的计算机系统，它在物理计算机上模拟出一个完整的计算环境。虚拟机可以在同一台物理计算机上同时运行多个独立的操作系统和应用程序。

2

  • 虚拟机的工作原理是通过虚拟化技术将物理计算机的硬件资源（如：处理器、内存、存储等）进行抽象和分配，为每个虚拟机提供一部分资源。每个虚拟机都被视为一个独立的计算机系统，可以运行自己的操作系统和应用程序。
  • 虚拟机的优势在于它可以提供隔离性和灵活性。通过虚拟机，可以在同一台物理计算机上同时运行多个操作系统，实现资源的共享和最大化利用。同时，虚拟机还可以提供快速部署、快速备份和恢复等功能，方便管理和维护。
  • 常见的虚拟机软件，包括：VMware、VirtualBox、KVM 等。它们提供了虚拟化平台和管理工具，使用户可以轻松创建、配置和管理虚拟机。虚拟机广泛应用于开发和测试环境、服务器虚拟化、云计算等领域。

WARNING

虚拟机软件和虚拟机的概念不同：

  • ① 虚拟机软件是用来模拟硬件一个软件，如：VMware 等。
  • ② 而虚拟机是通过虚拟机软件模拟出来的计算机硬件，其实是文件的集合，相当于一台没有安装 Windows 操作系统的裸机。
  • ③ 在现实交谈的时候，我们有时候会模糊虚拟机软件和虚拟机的概念，甚至会使用虚拟机来代替虚拟机软件；此时，就需要根据上下文环境（语境）来判断到底说的是虚拟机软件还是虚拟机了。

2.3 安装虚拟机软件 ​

2.3.1 前提条件 ​

  • 需要在 BIOS 中开启虚拟化功能。

image-20240117085245337

2.3.2 安装步骤 ​

  • ① 双击打开 VMware 安装程序 。

双击打开VMware安装程序.png

  • ② 进行下一步安装：

VMware进行下一步安装.png

  • ③ 同意许可协议，单击下一步：

VMware同意许可协议，单击下一步.png

  • ④ 根据需要决定是否需要更改软件的安装位置（建议放置于除 C 盘以外任意盘符下）：

VMware更改安装位置.png

VMware更改安装位置成功.png

  • ⑤ 更改成功后，单击确定，下一步继续安装：

VMware更改成功后，单击确定，下一步继续安装.png

  • ⑥ 用户体验设置，如下图所示，单击下一步继续安装：

VMware用户体验设置，如下图所示，单击下一步继续安装.png

  • ⑦ 快捷方式设置，单击下一步继续安装：

VMware快捷方式设置，单击下一步继续安装.png

  • ⑧ 单击安装按钮：

VMware单击安装按钮.png

  • ⑨ VMware 输入许可证：

VMware单击许可证.png

VMware输入许可证.png

  • ⑩ 安装结束后，单击完成按钮：

VMware安装结束后，单击完成按钮.png

  • ⑪ 检查虚拟机软件是否安装了虚拟网卡：

查看VMware安装的虚拟网卡.png

查看VMware安装的虚拟网卡1.png

查看VMware安装的虚拟网卡2.png

2.3.2 配置网络 ​

  • ① 打开 VMware 虚拟机软件：

image-20240116202917529

  • ② 编辑 → 虚拟网络编辑器：

image-20240116202955131

  • ③ Vmnet8 → 更改设置：

image-20240116203207282

  • ④ 更改子网 IP 地址为 ：192.168.10.0 ，其目的是为了将 IP 固定。

image-20240116203357894

  • ⑤ DHCP 设置：

image-20240116203529749

image-20240116203627959

  • ⑤ 通过 cmd ，输入 ipconfig 命令，查看是否配置成功：

2.4 创建虚拟机 ​

2.4.1 概述 ​

  • 创建虚拟机，本质上就类似购买一台没有安装操作系统的裸机。

2.4.2 创建虚拟机 ​

  • ① 文件 → 新建虚拟机：

image-20240117090352182

  • ② 选择自定义类型的配置：

image-20240117090443216

  • ③ 虚拟机硬件兼容性：下一步即可。

image-20240117090529266

  • ④ 选择稍后安装操作系统：

image-20240117090636337

  • ⑤ 选择虚拟机将安装的操作系统：

image-20240117090805295

  • ⑥ 设置虚拟机的名称和安装位置：

image-20240117090944676

WARNING

一个虚拟机一个安装目录（文件夹），防止引起文件的冲突。

  • ⑦ 虚拟机中处理器的配置：下一步即可。

image-20240117091051284

  • ⑧ 设置虚拟机的内存：至少 2048 MB以上。

image-20240117091202131

  • ⑨ 设置虚拟机的网络类型：下一步即可。

image-20240117091257738

  • ⑩ 设置 I/O 控制器类型：下一步即可。

image-20240117091402913

  • ⑪ 选择磁盘类型：下一步即可。

image-20240117091540264

  • ⑫ 选择磁盘：下一步即可。

image-20240117091640870

  • ⑬ 选择磁盘容量：调整为 40 GB。

image-20240117091832846

  • ⑭ 指定磁盘文件：下一步即可。

image-20240117091907233

  • ⑮ 创建虚拟机完毕：

image-20240117092013264

  • ⑯ 查看是否创建虚拟机成功：

image-20240117092101810

2.4.3 虚拟机归类（分类） ​

  • 实际情况下，我们可能会创建很多虚拟机，VMware 提供了文件夹的功能来管理虚拟机；其步骤如下所示：
  • ① 鼠标右键 → 创建文件夹：

image-20240117092324545

  • ② 修改文件夹的名称：

image-20240117092600931

image-20240117092643086

image-20240117092720769

  • ③ 将刚才创建的虚拟机拖到该文件夹下：

2.4.4 设置 CD/DVD ​

  • 以前，我们在一台裸机上安装操作系统的时候，需要通过 DVD 或 U 盘将操作系统的 ISO 镜像文件，安装到裸机上；
  • 同理，在使用虚拟机软件的时候，也需要此类步骤；其步骤如下：
  • ① 编辑虚拟机设置：

image-20240117093143947

  • ② 选择硬盘上的 ISO 镜像文件：

image-20240117093354461

  • ③ 查看是否配置成功：

image-20240117093435976

2.5 安装 Linux ​

  • ① 开启此虚拟机：

image-20240117093516070

  • ② 鼠标点击进去之后，通过键盘上的方向键来选择：

image-20240117093610205

  • 注意⚠️：键盘上的方向键在这里

image-20240117093918602

  • ③ 设置操作系统的语言环境为中文：

image-20240117094530342

  • ④ 设置系统安装目的地：

  • ⑤ 设置软件选择：默认即可

  • ⑥ 设置 root 的密码：123456即可

WARNING

学习阶段无所谓设置什么密码，但是生产环境，必须复杂并且经常更换！！！

  • ⑦ 配置网络和主机名：

image-20240224223931266

image-20240224224038036

image-20240224224138061

image-20240224224209724

image-20240224224245924

image-20240224224344051

  • ⑧ 查看配置网络和主机名是否成功：

image-20240224224420273

  • ⑨ 点击开始安装：漫长的等待……

  • ⑩ 安装完成之后，会提示重启系统，那就重启吧：

2.6 远程连接 Linux ​

2.6.1 查看 Linux 的 IP 地址 ​

  • 通过 ifconfig 命令来查看 Linux 的 IP 地址：
shell
ifconfig

image-20240117101543732

2.6.2 远程连接 Linux ​

  • 可以通过 xshell 之类的远程连接工具来连接 Linux ，其步骤如下：
  • ① 新建会话：

image-20240117101749340

  • ② 输入 Linux 的 IP 地址：

image-20240117101906927

  • ③ 输入用户名和密码：

image-20240117102005340

  • ④ 接收和保存远程 Linux 的密钥：

image-20240117102123845

  • ⑤ 查看是否登录成功：

image-20240117102159684

Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

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Released under the MIT License.

Copyright © 2024 许大仙

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